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Moreover, it saves time and healthcare expenditure. This essay aims to discuss the comparisons between two projects, in Cambodia-partners Telekinetic project and a remote volcanic group of Islands In South Atlantic Ocean-Telemeter comes home. To begin with, recent studies illustrate that there are many benefits of using telekinetic, especially for the least developed environments like Tristan dad Chunk and several distant places in Cambodia. It can be used effectively via 24-hour satellite-internet connection in Tristan De Chunk; first of all, It Is helpful for doctors to monitor patients' conditions and even for surgery.According to a foreman of medication at IBM named Richard Baklava, â€Å"What we are starting to see now is a patient-doctor model. † It is presently ordinary that physicians send patients' information such as X-rays in a computer program version to other experts. For example, If Dry. Van De Mere requires advising specialists, he can function It over a video l ink. As the technology amends, a mechanical-liked operation system called Dad Vinci was used to remove a gall-bladder on a patient in the year of 2001. (The Economist, 2008, p. 3) In Cambodia, telekinetic is typically used In provinces In some resource-poor areas the same as In South Atlantic Ocean, too. The Cambodia villagers, especially those who live In Roving and Ban Lung, have been very grateful for the provision of internet access. To be able to send and obtain data, the local populations need solar and generator- powered satellite dishes, wireless technology and mobile systems to approach. Furthermore, telemeter mostly works on some sicknesses like malaria and diarrhea that are likely to be occurred on kids in the remote Cambodia.On the other hand, without the motormen who take responsibilities on delivering patients' information to physicians, it is almost impossible for the villagers to know what recklessly goes wrong with their health. (Hellmann, 2005, Internet). In other words, with the aids of the internet, telekinetic has cured and saved so many people's lives. Taking the ill patients at Roving in Preach Viewer province as an example, if they want to visit the doctors at Phonon Penn city, they have to spend time and fees on traveling to receive better treatments or Just to have simple health check-ups.As regards to a Cambodia report, It states that almost 80% of the residents derived a great satisfaction from the resistance involved and that they would be willing to foot 1 OFF hey are not required a direct visit to the specialty hospitals. (Heinlein, 200, internet) Similarly, Tristan dad Chunk, does not have an airstrip to provide clinical heath care for urgent situations, therefore, it would be a difficulty to contact other places in the world face to face in approximately one week.

Ethnic Literature and Postcolonialism In Barta’s “Gadis Tangsi”

The definition of ethnic literature â€Å"is literature like any other, except that it contains ethnic references.† (Reilly p.2). Another definition of ethnic literature is when there is a literature work that contain religious beliefs, racial issues, linguistics, or cultural heritage. In another word, ethnic literature is the literary work that includes particular culture, beliefs, or linguistics distinction. Postcolonial literary theory draws attention in the issue of cultural difference emerging in the society.One of the issues which may often appear during the class discussion is hybridity. It seems that people who have been faced by the fact that they are living in a ‘hybrid world’ tend to be confused by their real status. They realize for their interest, but they can not avoid the possibility becoming ‘in between’. Although , they are included into one part, the native part, but on the other hand they can not deny the deep feeling to be pleasant considering themselves different with the other. There is a kind of more value they have compared with their surround, and they think it is worthy to be kept. Of course, this feeling comes into their mind by some reasons.There must be an additional value added into their original culture. The additional value may be in the form of a new ideology, belief or view which are brought by the dominating. The dominated rarely conscious with the impact. They usually only feel that it is a natural process which become the impact of daily social interaction they are engaged in. Another issue which emerges in postcolonial discussion is about dominated-dominating one. We can not expect who actually take the role as ‘dominating’ or ‘dominated’.The practice may turn over, the dominated may become the dominating in the same time toward different object, vice versa. We are also introduced by ‘Otherness’ theory. It makes someone consider that she or he are diff erent from the other, and other people is not the same with her or him. Gadis Tangsi tells a story about a girl life, namely Teyi. She is a Javanese girl who grew up in the Javanese tradition. She lives with his parents and sibling in tangsi area. She was taught to become an obedient girl by her mother with many limitations as a girl. She helps her mother to sell fried bananas every day.Teyi finds herself limited by some rules which  are considered as the right rules for her mother. She even does not know how ‘love’ or how to be ‘loved’ by a man. She was taught to be a polite woman. She finally finds who she is when she is introduced to Putri Parasi by Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi who has helped her. That is the beginning of her new experience to recognize a new world, the world that she has never imagined before. Putri Parasi teaches her everything to be ‘a good lady’. Putri Parasi likes Teyi for her politeness. She more likes Teyi after bein g saved when her disease comes immediately. Putri Parasi expects to teach her how to behave well.She even teaches Teyi to speak Dutch. Teyi starts to be able to read and write. Putri Parasi really wants to prepare her to be taken to Surakarta Keraton and introduced her to a man who will be married with her. She plans to make Teyi deserve to have a husband from Keraton families. In the novel Gadis Tangsi written by Suparto Brata, we can see some unexpected phenomenon occur. It makes me realize that actually there are still many things covered even by what Javanese people considered as ‘budaya adiluhung’.The word ‘politeness’, ‘hospitality’ and ‘dignity’ which come into people mind when they heard about Javanese culture become blur after they read this novel. Javanese woman who is considered as an obedient woman and become a mercy for whom takes her as a wife may be surprised by what Suparto tells about Teyi and Dumilah. He brings th em in this novel as representative of Javanese woman character, in different point of view. However, the story about them, for me, is far from the stereotype of common Javanese women (may be just a few). The feeling of ‘in between’ seem to be experienced by Teyi. She starts to know about how the way the higher status people behave since she meets Putri Parasi.Teyi realizes that her life style is quite different from her, and she is glad when she knows that Putri Parasi does not mind introducing this new culture to her. From this intentional interaction, after she is taught how to behave like ‘putri bangsawan’, Teyi starts to consider she has a chance to be the same with them. Even she lives with her parents, she starts to consider that she is better than them. She has been raised from the lower part. She has more power than the people in the house. The very obvious impact of this teaching actually appears when Teyi has been left by Putri Parasi. After she p assed away, Teyi become independent from the influence of Putri Parasi.Although, there are still some traces of her teaching inside Teyi which reflect in the  way she behaves. She seems take the dominating position over her husband, Sapardal. Sapardal feeling about his lower position when they have been married becomes the cause of the divorce. Only two days of marriage, and Teyi considers that she has a right to sue divorce, while Sapardal can only keep silent without any comment. In this relationship, Sapardal as a man who actually considered as ‘the dominating’ take the role as ‘the dominated’. He does not feel on the same level with Teyi. He admits that he has no power compared to Teyi. He even has no courage to touch her in their first night of marriage.Here, we can see the role between man and woman has shifted. Brata seems to show us that the role of people in the society is like running on the moving wheel. The dominating and dominated are only a symbol of someone position, which also can be shifted based on where we are standing. Sapardal may fail in maintaining his position as superior in front of Teyi. The cultural change also appears in this novel. Sexual intercourse is not considered as a sacral any longer for almost all the women in this novel. During my reading, I wonder if I read Indonesian culture literary work, especially belong to Javanese one.However, Brata wrote the novel using the Indonesian condition in the past, in the colonial occupation. In this situation, it is not easy to determine which one who still hold the original value since the influence of other ideology come into the life in that simple way. The force of a new ideology input is not directly felt in this novel. The indigenous people enjoy the acculturation between the dominated and the dominating. It also happens in the shifting of the way they see sexual intercourse actually is. What we call as a taboo becomes commonly conducted by the people. Te yi is defined as a free woman, even she has been married and becomes a wife of Sapardal, and she breaks the rule by having intercourse with Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi.It seems that she wants to take a revenge to Dumilah who is considered had cheated her by having romantic affair with her master. Sapardal can not do anything. He has failed to become a good husband. This thinking is from his own side. When we look at this phenomenon, again, Teyi proves that she has had a power over a man from her own society. She starts to have a right to consider a man like Sapardal is not at the same level with her. However, in my opinion it will not happen if Sapardal never has the way of thinking. Actually, he has thought that she is great and different from the other woman in his  environment before they are married. That makes he has no courage to touch her at their first night.It also makes Teyi feels not being regarding or respecting as a wife. She thinks that Sapardal has no desire toward her, and she thinks that it is better to ask divorce. What a short way of thinking! I found that Teyi has put a wrong way of thinking about what Putri Parasi had taught to her. It seems that she does not consider marriage as a sacral relationship any longer. ‘Love’ relationship has been considered as a ‘real’ relationship when we have passion to have sex with our couple. Is that so simple? That is the way Teyi think about love basically. It is shown also when she does not mind to have sex with her ex-master, Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi, and then she starts to love someone else, Ndara Mas Kus.There is no any guilty feeling. Finally, we can conclude that there are three aspect of postcolonial reading for Gadis Tangsi has been discussed above. First, hybridity appears when Teyi finds herself has involved and being a part of Putri Parasi’s society, Keraton environment since she has been able to behave and speak like her, so she considers that she is a pa rt of Putri community. While she has that feeling, she still can not avoid other people consideration about her who is only becoming a servant and will not become like them. Second, dominating feeling toward Sapardal comes into her mind. There is dominating-dominated in shifting model between them. It seems a denial for a man who usually considered as the dominating one, while Teyi proves that it can be shifted. Last, ‘Otherness’ theory also emerges in this novel.After having taught to have attitude and behave like Putri Parasi model, Teyi finally considers herself different with other woman in her society. It appears in the way she treats Dumilah who is her old friend. She thinks that Dumilah has no right to become ‘a munci’ of Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi because she is not at the same level with her or Ndara.

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Leadership - Essay Example After the managers of companies expose what values they believe in, they will become objects of derision if they fail to live up to their own expectations. However, when they lead by example, they effectively influence the activities of others. Competence is highly associated with wisdom in making tough decisions when executing an activity to achieve set objectives (Conyers, 2010). Competent leaders are imaginative people who use their practical knowledge to oversee the execution of guidelines and policies. Inspirational leaders are those who believe that their workers have as many talents as themselves. Companies can only achieve their objectives if they allow their employees to have a turn at participating in decision making policies. This means that all workers in companies have to be judged fairly and given the same opportunities to participate in fulfilling organizational objectives as are extended to the company leaders. A good leader will refrain from showing that he has favou rites among his company’s personnel; even if he does (Hybels, 2008). A good leader will use personal character and the ability to complete tasks to determine the workers who should be promoted. Intelligence and Communication A person has to exhibit self-discipline as well as self-awareness in order to be perceived as being intelligent. A good worker will also portray a calm attitude when faced with considerable challenges and show a readiness to cooperate with others in order to accomplish organizational objectives even when there are other personal issues that he or she is dealing with (Conyers, 2010). A good worker, and, therefore, potential leader, should also be in possession of good communication skills that allow him to be able to communicate successfully with high ranking managers as well as subordinates. For communication to transpire there has to be a message, channel, sender, and receiver. Any interpretations of the messages and feedback given depend largely on how the receiver understands the message. The receiver can also be the sender at some point (Yan and Hunt, 2005). There are essential qualities that every leader should have. Some of these include personal integrity, inspiration or motivation and good communication skills. Understanding the acknowledged and unacknowledged regulations and boundaries aids leaders in perceiving the expectations of their societies. Keeping an open mind permits the consideration of the diverse viewpoints that are presented. The importance of honouring one’s commitments cannot be understated. This will enhance one’s associations with other people. People who will be attracted to following any one leader will want to trust that he has the skills they yearn to emulate. The Role of Personal Integrity Personal integrity is, of necessity, one of the traits that make a good leader. This trait, however, is rarely found in today’s business setting. There have been many recent reports on how moral failings have resulted in the resignation of more than one corporate leader. Many times, men and women who are elected into positions of business leadership believe that they can be able to withstand all temptations. However, in making such assumptions, they blind themselves to the possibility that they are deceiving themselves. Most business leaders never set out to intentionally commit fraud or sexually harass their

Conseco Company Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Conseco Company Analysis - Research Paper Example The subsidiaries of the company provide life insurances, annuity and other products related to health insurance. The independent agents and the direct advertisements to the customers are used to distribute the products of the organization. The company acquired the Lincoln Income Life Insurance Company in 1986. The company purchased the GreenTree Financial in 1998 which was the largest financier for mobile homes. The objective of the company was to diversify into the financial services (Company Briefs, 2003). In the later part of the same year, the company purchased Colonial Penn, a life insurance company. The company got included in the Chapter 11 reorganization in 2001. GreenTree financial services were divested in the reorganization process and the company under consideration is now solely focusing on the insurance industry (Conseco, 2012). Industry Structure The production of economic goods as well as services within an economy is known as the industry. An industry can be classifi ed into three sectors namely primary, secondary and tertiary. One can also classify industries on the basis of size, raw materials and the ownership of the business. Primary industries involve direct extraction of the resources from the Earth while the secondary industries involves in the processing products delivered by the primary industries. The last type of industry is mainly involved in the provision of services. The firms dealing with the management, investment decisions as well as lending of money processes operates in the financial industry. The financial institutions can actually make money as their business. They are not engaged in selling physical products but offer financial services and fiscal expertise. The markets where no participants have the potential to have the market power selling a homogeneous product are regarded as competitive market. The number of the firms as well as size distribution of the firms within an industry is referred by the term â€Å"industry s tructure†. There may be ‘n’ number of firms. If there are large firms present in an industry there is lack of coordination among them. Therefore, the degree of competition rises with the presence of large number of firms within the industry. The size distribution of the firms is important from the business as well as the public point of view. If the size of the participating firms is small compared with the size of the industry, then the industry is said to be fragmented and otherwise consolidated (Jain, 2002). A form of market where the industry is dominated by small number of sellers is called oligopoly. Each oligopolist is aware of the market conditions as few sellers are present in the market. The decision of one firm can influence or are influenced by other firms. The responses of the participants of the market are taken into account in the strategic planning process by the oligopolists (Mang, 2011, p. 1). Competition in oligopolistic market can give rise to different outcomes. An oligopoly can maximize its profits by producing at the level where marginal revenue equals marginal costs (Krcilkova, n.d, p. 10). Monopolistic competition along with oligopoly constitutes the structure of imperfect competition. Firms that are imperfectly competitive offer many products. All wealth that fulfills the wants of consumers constitutes the wealth of a nation. Therefore, the aim behind expanding wealth is broadening the choices of the consumers is terms of quality, quantity

HOW FAST FOOD IN AMERICA EFFECTS THE GROWTH OF CHILD OBESITY Research Paper

HOW FAST FOOD IN AMERICA EFFECTS THE GROWTH OF CHILD OBESITY - Research Paper Example Such overweight and obese children are, often, the recipients of consistent harassment, cruel taunts, and likely, bullying. Unfortunately, the number of children falling into the category of obese, or well on their way to becoming obese, is growing and has been for some time. Why are children battling issues of obesity at younger and younger ages? There are multiple theories about the different aspects and elements of modern society that are contributory to the issue of childhood obesity. Many researchers favor the idea that it is the fast food industry that can, and should, be blamed for this unhealthy trend in childhood weight gain. Although, it is unlikely, that fast food alone can be held entirely responsible; however, it is most certainly a contributor. Background A child can be classified as overweight if their â€Å"body mass Index,† or BMI, is higher than the 85th percentile for their age and gender. Obesity is determined when a child’s BMI is at or above the 95 th percentile for their gender and age. The number of children that fall into these percentiles has, essentially, tripled over the last 3 decades. (Miller , Rosenbloom, and Silverstein 1) The dangers for children who are overweight or obese are at risk to contract or develop a number very serious diseases and conditions; cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, and prediabetes, which can eventually evolve into actual diabetes. Children who are obese may, also, face unpleasant social isolation, which can lead to psychological and self esteem issues. Overweight and obese children are considerably more likely to grow up to me overweight and obese adults. At which point they, potentially, become even more at risk of developing the aforementioned conditions, but, also, joint problems and heightened risk of developing cancers of the prostate, cervix, breast, pancreas, bladder, and kidney to name a few. Given a bit more time, at this rate, obesity, or complications caused by it, will b ecome the number 1 cause of death in the United States.(Miller, Rosenbloom, and Silverstein 1) Because childhood obesity is a concern that does not seem to be slowing down or stopping, much research has been done to determine causes that have allowed childhood obesity to increase so much, preventions that can combat these modern causes, and treatments to improve the health and lives who are presently overweight or obese. There are a multitude of contributing factors, some genetic, others environmental, and some are related to the nature and quality of the food that they consume. ("Childhood Obesity") Fast food, like pizza, tacos, burgers and fries, and all the franchises open all times and hours, has earned a finger pointed their direction as the pan-ultimate cause of childhood obesity. Although not all researchers agree, but the fast food industry does absolutely play a significant part. Discussion The modern society we live in today is so very different from generations that came before us. The nature of jobs and entertainment have all become far more sedentary with all of the new technological advances; televisions, video games, and computers encourage longer and longer periods devoid of physical activity. The children are a product of that environment. It has, also, been determined that our modern world is far more dangerous than it once was, children’s parents are less comfortable with their children playing outside, parks and playgrounds are

Constitutional and Administrative Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Constitutional and Administrative Law - Essay Example Out of the three mentioned above the parliamentary sovereignty is the elementary principle which guides the action of the constitution. The root of the doctrine is in the political events of the late seventeenth century and the legal hypothesis propounded by Professor Dicey (Loveland, I, 2006, pp. 21-93.). The Parliament is a sovereign law creator and thus has the power to either make or unmake any law. According to Dicey (1885:39-40), â€Å"Parliamentary sovereignty means Parliament has the right to make or unmake any law whatever; and, further, that no person or body is recognized by the law of England as having a right to override or set aside the legislation of Parliament†(Turpin, C. & Tomkins, A, 2007, p.40). Thus this doctrine entails that there is no law which is higher than the Act of Parliament. The Human Rights Act 1998 contributed the European Rule on Human Rights into UK domestic law. Section 3 of the Act produces an informational responsibility for the courts. It calls for all Acts of Parliament to be understood in a manner which is well-suited with the Convention rights. The informational powers of the courts can change the meaning of legislation when the circumstances demand for it, even though it may be clear that such an intrepretation is against the intention of the legislature. In cases of discrepancy the courts are handed the opening to make a proclamation of repugnance (section 4 of the Act)( http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1998/19980042.htm accessed on 13th August 2009..) The Human Rights Act 1998 also disputed the querry of whether it is reliable to the principle of Parliamentary sovereignty. Even if it is feasible for the parliament to revoke or alter the Act, it can certainly be said that parliament can not break out from the force which the public opinion o n Human Rights puts on it. According to Elliot "it will become much rarer for legislation to contradict human

Unit 2 Individual Project Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Unit 2 Individual Project - Coursework Example My first short term goal involves offsetting the initial cost of the gift baskets. Secondly, I intend to obtain a clientele which is part of a niche market. Thirdly, I intend to be strategically located in midst of the hum of the community. Three intermediate goals include maintaining the competitive edge in the niche market; having enough cash/profit on hand to begin to repay my relatives and other financers and thirdly, employing more personnel because of the expansion of the business. My long term goals invovle: continuation of the advertising campaign, expanding the business to two other locations, online marketing is one such location and finally, developing products to the specific needs of client. The market opportunity for selling this product in my area is fantastic in that there are many individuals between the ages of 16 to 55 On analysis of the market I have discovered that there is a market niche in this age group because of the survey I conducted by randomly choosing every 10th individual on different days of the week. In addition, an online survey was conducted and the results indicate that there is indeed a need for this type of store in my area. For the customers targeted the store would be located within easy access to their daily errands of the grocery store and the train station. These individuals are so busy that they prefer to utilize a gift bag rather than the traditional wrapping of gifts. My strategy is to embark upon aggressive marketing strategies in the first year to allow these young people to know of my product and my location. I expect to gain at least a 10 percent profit in the first year of operation. The personnel employed would be young, attractive individuals who would persuade with their looks and their marketing skills which would be provided by me initially and later a marketing expert. My suppliers have already been contacted. They are willing to offer me a large discount on the initial

Why might Livingstone and Lunts approach to infotainment be criticized Essay

Why might Livingstone and Lunts approach to infotainment be criticized from Habermas perspective on the public sphere - Essay Example These realizations led to the postulations that communication had two dimensions with one dimension covering the overall communication of human beings and the other dimension covering the characteristics of communications that result from dynamics that influence communication at a given time and space (Outhwaite 2006, p.98). Therefore, communication is not a new concept. The current approaches to communication involve the works of Jurgen Habermas who approached communication using post-modernism and argued from a philosophical perspective. Herbamas concept of communication is that it should involve a deliberate action between the communicating parties to create harmony through a process known as rationalization. In essence, communication involves actors who take it upon themselves to create harmony and to solve problems through the process of communication. In essence, communication seized to be just an avenue for people to exchange ideas but an active tool that can be used to solve the problems outlined by the English Philosopher Thomas Hobbes (Outhwaite, Habermas: a critical introduction 2009, p.70). Habermas outlines that communicative action is not just communication but that it uses the tools of communication (Outhwaite, Habermas: a critical introduction, 2009). In essence, Habermas implies that for communicative action to take place both parti es have to be active participants. A central postulation to Habermas analysis of communication is that communication has to be rational. The concept of rationality is not new in the field of philosopher and sociology dating back from the times of philosophers like Plato and Rene Descartes. Although rationality is also still surrounded by controversy in terms of definition, the paper will approach rationality as concerning sound mind and reasoning. Communication in the contemporary world has taken a dynamic dimension beginning with the mass production of print media and cable television which has been the major

Eichmann in Jerusalem Holocaust Museum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Eichmann in Jerusalem Holocaust Museum - Essay Example In 2002 Maya Kodnani sponsored the killing of 95 in Gujarat riots by handing out swords to the mobs. He was sober, but he committed the crime with diligence. Maya is sane as he operates a clinic and he is the gynecologist by profession (Haugen 189). In addition, Tytler Jagdish was among the key individuals who participated in the Program of 1984 against the Sikhs. He was a normal human being and not insane compared to Eichmann. This means that Eichmann was murdered as a sacrifice for many others who committed the crimes. The diagnosis made by the doctors contributed more of the inhuman activities against him. The writer who is Arendt was trying to shelter herself using the crimes that Eichmann was accused of committing. She used sarcasm in her presentation for readers to understand her contempt on Eichmann instead of presenting Eichmann’s internal instances. Arendt considered and described Eichmann as a self-absurd and pathetic creature who does not understand the alternatives steps in his actions (Haugen 91). The presentation was meant to shock readers that Eichmann cannot understand even the obvious things. This also described Eichmann that he does not exist in the universe of morality where normal things are done. The strategy in which Arendt used did not allow Eichmann to defend himself in the court. The readers were made to understand that the judges made decisions on their own understanding and not as per Arendt’s narrative. The judges viewed how Eichmann’s followed his external orders and not by his defense. Arendt disagreed with those who described the narrative about Eichmann as being unreliable. She said that the defense and the prosecution have their judicial roles. The prosecutors did not believe on what Eichmann was saying because he believed they were not among his duties.

Charge of the Light Brigade Essay Example for Free

Charge of the Light Brigade Essay How far do Sources 1 and 2 challenge the impression of the Charge of the Light Brigade given in Source 3? The Charge of the Light Brigade was started by an order given by Lord Raglan to charge. It last half an hour and 113 men were killed. Source 3 is a ‘recalling’ of the brutality of the Charge of the Light Brigade. It shows the perspective of someone watching the battle rather than taking part so is therefore limited. Although, it is still useful as is written by a witness who saw it happen at the time of the event. There are various features of source 1 and 2 that challenge source 3’s impression of the Charge of the Light Brigade. For example, source 1 portrays the appearance of only Russian soldiers and of the English look triumphant. Whereas source 3 states ‘our men tried to drag their mangled bodies’ giving the impression that many were badly injured. Source 2 challenges source 3 by saying ‘right thro’ the line they broke’ this gives the impression the English troops managed to get onto Russian ground and shows them as more successful than stated in source. In addition source 2 agrees with source 1 in this sense as can be seen in the picture, the English soldiers have reached the Russians and the Russians are made to look weak. Source 2 however is limited as is written as a poem, so may be dramatized to add effect and make to it more interesting to read. Also the information included in the poem was written on the Isle of Weight after hearing Russell’s report so is very limited. Despite the various things that challenge source 3 in source 2 and 1 there are also many things that agree with it. When looking at the cartoon in source 1 it appears to disagree with source 3, however looking at the provenance may change this opinion. It was published in the magazine ‘Punch’ which was a teasing and dramatizing newspaper. It was also only one month after the Charge of the Light Brigade and everyone knew how badly the English had performed. It appears to pick fun at Lord Cardigan and blame him for the loss that day. Source 3 and 2 also agree that a lot of men were badly injured or killed that day. This is seen when source 2 states ‘Then they rode back, but not not this six hundred’ the emphasis on the not shows that nowhere near six hundred of them rode back. In source 3 this is shown when Sergeant-Major Timothy Gowing states ‘but few escaped. ’ Source 2 agrees with source 3 when it states the soldiers were ‘shatter’d and sunder’d. ’ This coincides with the image of the soldiers having to ‘drag their mangled bodies’ the word drag shows exhaustion and that they used every last bit of energy to try and escape the battle field. In conclusion, source 1 and 2 mainly agree with the image of the Charge of the Light Brigade portrayed in source 3. Source 1 is making fun of Lord Cardigan and how terribly wrong the whole situation went so is a lot less serious than the other 2 sources. They all however give the image of the battle being a bloody, ‘brutal’ one in which many lives were lost. Source 3 was written 41 years after this shows the charge still has an impact years later and people still do not know the full truth.

Impact of Culture on Consumer Behaviour

Impact of Culture on Consumer Behaviour China is the fastest growing and most dynamic economy and is becoming one of the most important markets in the world. With a total population of 1.3 billion and a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of US$10.2 trillion, China accounts for 12% of the worlds GDP. Luna Gupta (2001) noted that the key factors contributing to the significant economic growth in China encompass: Integration into the global economies and export growth; Being the world manufacturing hub; Expansion of Chinas domestic market and inland China growth; and Commitment to the World Trade Organization (WTO). To excel in China, the understanding of Chinese culture is important. Culture is human activities and environment where sets of values and norms followed by a group of people with inherited ethical habits that are symbolic, meaningful and identifiable whether abstract and material (Blackwell et al., 2007). It is to be noted that every form of the culture elements (materials, social institutions, beliefs and value systems, aesthetics and languages) cannot be viewed singly as they are intricately intertwined as each has its synergistic effect with the other. The national culture of any country is shaped by its core values and is the source of considerable amount of mental programming (Hofstede, 1991; Banerjee, 2008). Therefore, it is imperative for marketers to better understand Chinese consumers behaviour (Cui Liu, 2000; Zhou et al., 2009). The impact of national culture is derived and measured from Hofstedes Dimension of Culture Individualism versus Collectivism; Power Distance; Masculinity versus Femininity; Uncertainty Avoidance and Long-term Orientation versus Short-term Orientation. National culture has considerable influence on consumer behaviour (Jaishankar, 1998; Banerjee, 2008) and is outer stimuli, influencing the diffusion of product across countries (Kumar et al., 1998; Banerjee, 2008). China being a large and complex society with 56 ethnic groups each with its own culture and values, there are different mindsets and values in different regions in China (Ralston et al., 1996; Zhou et al., 2009). It has thus been observed that China is a heterogeneous consumer market and not a homogeneous market (Dou et al., 2006; Zhou et al., 2009). Coastal regions of China have long been the gateway to the West through the import and export activities whilst the vast inland has traditionally relied on agriculture with all related industries depended on the natural resources (Veek et al., 2007; Zhou et al., 2009). Therefore, there are two important cultural differences between the two regions the residents from the coastal regions are more open, individualistic and innovative whereas the inland regions are more conservative and collectivistic (Cui Liu, 2000; Zheng, 2006; Zhou et al., 2009). The different regional subcultures are definitely reflected in the different patterns of consumers shopping behaviours. Therefore, it is pertinent to understand the influence of culture of the regions to avoid confounding the cultural dimension. Luna Gupta (2001) noted that culture affects consumer behaviour which reinforces the manifestation of culture. An individuals consumption behaviour is a result of the individual culture value system developed over time as they socialise in a particular group which is in turn influenced by regional sub-cultures and familial values. The first stage of understanding buyer behaviour is to focus on the factors that determine the buyer characteristics in the black box. These can be summarised as follows: The 7Ps of marketing Product, Price, Promotion, Place, Process, People and Physical Evidence shall be conceptualised and operationalised in a culturally-sensitive environment. Such analysis on consumer behaviour provides to marketers the basic and underlying motives for consumption that helps in understanding the fundamental needs, wants and different forms of the consumers decision making variables. This paper aims to review the impact of culture on the consumer behaviour in China focusing on three of the culture elements which are values, languages and aesthetics and how culture elements shape the purchasing patterns of the Chinese. 2.0 The impact of values on consumer behaviour 2.1 Definition of values Values can be defined as moral or professional standards of behaviour. Literally, it means a set of emotional rules people follow to help make the right decisions in life. It instils a sense of integrity, honesty and diligence in people. As reported by Rokeach, (1968, 1973); Tai, (2008), value is defined as an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct personally or socially preferable. 2.2 Overview of Chinese values Values, attitudes, lifestyles and consumption patterns for the people of China have been deeply influenced by their long historical and cultural traditions. It is therefore important to have a comprehensive understanding of the significant aspects of Chinese cultural norms that have been shaped and formed mainly from interpersonal relationships and social orientations of the Chinese people. Religion has been diffused throughout the society and the term religionà ¥Ã‚ ®- à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢ (zÃ…Â ng-jià  o) did not even exist in the Chinese lexicon until the 19th century. It is highlighted that the above behavioural pattern has its origin from the works of Confucius, whose doctrines constitute the basic pillars of the Chinese life and ways of living (Bhasin, 2007; Qian, Abdur Razzaque Keng, 2007). Bhasin, (2007) also recognised that Confucianism had the most profound and lasting effect on Chinese society, where it promoted harmony through moral tenets at all levels of human rela tionships, especially the family and nation. 2.3 Values are regional Industrialisation which began on the coastal areas of China was unevenly spread and hence most of the inland regions were isolated from industrialisation. People in coastal regions with higher industrialisation levels have more interaction with imported products compare to the inland people and thus, adopt more western values. While Chinas coastal and inland regions share the same overall Chinese culture, they may also have their own distinctive values and norms (Huo Randall, 1991; Zhang, Grigoriou Li, 2008). As a result of that, coastal consumers are more individualistic compare to their inland counterparts which are more collectivistic. 2.4 Core Chinese values Understanding basic cultural competence is important when doing business in China. The Chinese core values which affect the consumers behaviour are conversed below. Family and group orientation Chinese society is made up of network of families with cultural values derived exclusively from the same. It strengthens the thought that the Chinese in general are collectivist. It is the family and kinship relations that pass on the heritage to the children and not the educational institutions (Qian, Abdur Razzaque Keng, 2007). Guanxi (à ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ³ à §Ã‚ ³Ã‚ » guÄ n xà ¬) Literally consists of two Chinese characters; guan refers to a gate or a hurdle, while xi means a tie. Taken together, guanxi means pass a gate or a hurdle and get connected (Ambler, 1994; Zhuang, Xi Tsang, 2010). It is an interactive behaviour or tie between two or more individuals that established the closeness of one relationship. The larger ones guanxi network is, the more powerful the person becomes (Qian, Abdur Razzaque Keng, 2007). Renqing (à ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ º à ¦Ã†â€™Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ rà ©n qà ­ng) Renqing is a social relationship concept according to an implicit set of rules. It can be interpreted as kind of resources, assistance or favour that one gives others and one should return the assistance given once the opportunity arises. Lee Dawes, (2005); Zhuang, Xi Tsang, (2010) explained that Renqing requires that, in a group, all members should help those in need and that all assistance or favours should be repaid. Those who do not repay assistance are considered untrustworthy. Renqing also can be termed as reciprocity. Mianzi (à ©Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢ à ¥Ã‚ ­Ã‚  mià  n zÇ ) Mianzi can be directly translated as face. (Zhuang, Xi Tsang, 2010) indicated that one is given face when he or she is made to feel respected or important. The fact that saving face is so significant to the Chinese, a person is more concerned with other peoples perception of him or herself and with maintenance of his or her own status (Lee Green, 1991; Qian, Abdur Razzaque Keng, 2007). The strong notion of face saving to a certain extent discourages consumer from voicing their products dissatisfaction, where one loses face in front of others if no positive outcome from the complaint is obtained. Yuan (à §Ã‚ ¼Ã‹Å" yuà ¡n) Yuan can be interpreted as karma or destiny. Chinese believe that there are predetermined things that are beyond ones control. Generally they have low expectations towards the purchased products and tend to attribute failure of the product to fate rather than to the manufacturer. Thrift Thrift has been identified as one of the core Chinese values. Faure Fang (2008) recognised that thrift has a functional impact on social life. Traditionally, Chinese people would bargain over the price when buying goods (Faure Fang, 2008). Chinese in big cities like Beijing and Shanghai put half of their annual per capita earnings into savings (Orr, 2004; Wang Lin, 2009). Traditional creeds Traditional creeds take place in Chinese society due to absence of faith and deep spirituality. The Chinese are characterised as extremely superstitious but not religious (Fang, 1999; Faure Fang, 2008). Chinese tend to believe in all sorts of supernatural powers that can intervene in their daily life (Faure, 2000; Pye, 1986; Faure Fang, 2008). Astrology and geomancy (feng shui) are believed to have direct effect on life, from the date of birth to marriage or buying a new office to the choosing of the opening date. Long-term orientation Traditionally, time is not a main concern for the Chinese. Faure Fang (2008) cited that time is perceived as an unlimited resource such as the air that people breathe. Companies and people could have a long term and continuous perspective about life and time. The long-term orientation relevant to the study of consumer behaviour is exemplified with the habit of saving for the future by the Chinese and hence they may spend less on unnecessary items. The case of Procter Gambles Crest toothpaste which entered the Chinese market in 1997 with green tea flavoured toothpaste that built on the traditional Chinese belief that green tea is healthy and good for teeth, resulted in their revenues increased in China by 24% per year between 2002 and 2006 (Suessmuth-Dyckerhoff, Hexter St-Maurice, 2008). On the other hand Starbucks, despite having more than 400 coffee shops in China failed to recognise the cultural sensitivity of the Chinese when they opened an outlet inside Beijings Forbidden City. Starbucks represents low context culture and are not compatible with the refined taste of cultural legacy condensed in the Forbidden City (Han Zhang, 2009). As a result, the shop had to be closed down under tremendous public pressure. The examples presented clearly show that values do impact consumer behaviour in terms of consumption patterns, lifestyles and the priority of needs. Urbanisation and industrialisation do give some influences on the values but Chinese do not seem to have given up its cultural characteristic, especially in deciding on a particular product. They tend to make judgments in the most traditional manner, thinking about issues of face, respect, trust and even guanxi. Thus, marketers need to engage in different approaches when dealing with the Chinese consumers with different value orientations. 3. The impact of Languages 3.1 Overview of Chinese Language China official language is Mandarin or Putonghua (common language) where an estimate of around 80% of the urban population in China use as their main language of communication (Zhou, 1999; Li, 2004) and there are also numerous major Chinese oral dialects as depicted in Table 3. The complexity of Chinese language is due to one of its attributes, which is a tonal language that relies on four distinct tones with 5 levels of pitch range (Chan Huang, 1997). Table 3: The Sinitic language (Han Chinese) as observed by Swanson, 1999, p.35 Language is arguably the most distinct differences when it comes to culture. For Chinese as observed by Alon, Littrel Chan (2009), they associate written name with the long history of written communication in China and beautiful crafted characters can yield positive brand perceptions. Due to the numerous dialects in different regions within China, communication within different regions are not fully understood, for example, Northern Chinese (who speak Mandarin) may not fully understand Southern Chinese (who speak Cantonese) and vice versa. This results in complications when it comes to making a universal Chinese branding strategy to market in China, and care must be taken when products brand names are being transliterated so that they will have positive appeal to consumers. 3.2 Standardised Written Chinese Characters The solution to unite language in China is the introduction of standardised Chinese writing to either Traditional (primarily outside Mainland China) or Simplified (primarily within Mainland China). The Government officiated Simplified Chinese or pinyin in 1958, which relies on effort to Romanised the pronunciation of Chinese characters. Marketers have long acknowledged the importance of localising their brand names, so that their brand names recall highly amongst Chinese consumers, as this is one of the best ways to attract attention. Coca Cola transliterated its name to à ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ £Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¹Ã‚  (kĆº-kÇ’u-kĆº-là ¨) which means to allow the mouth to be able to rejoice is a clear example of localising brand name as indicated by Alon, Littrel Chan (2009). It can be further noted that in selecting brand names, it is essential that they are easy to remember, spell and pronounce (Li Shooshtari 2003; Alon, Littrel Chan, 2009). In a clear adherence to this, German automakers BMW can be transliterated to à ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ©Ã‚ ¬ (bÇÅ ½o mÇÅ ½), meaning treasure horse and Mercedes Benz can be transliterated to à ¥Ã‚ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ©Ã‚ ° (bÄâ€Å"n chà ­), meaning dashing speed. The knowledge of naming products which have meaningful words in China woul d ensure the acceptance and success in the Chinese market. 3.3 Two-Syllable Brand Names Due to the complexity of Chinese characters, the work of Alon, Littrel Chan (2009) noted that out of 9,400 morphemes which relate to one syllable, a combination of these morphemes, rather than individually used, created a 70% Chinese words comprising of two morphemes or syllables. Ideally, two-syllable brand names are preferred as they are easier to pronounce and remember (Chan Huang 2001; Alon, Littrel Chan, 2009). In the case of Coca Cola, when it was first launched in China in 1928, people called by its four syllables brand à ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ £Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¹Ã‚  (kĆº-kÇ’u-kĆº-là ¨) and as its popularity and acceptance grew, Chinese consumers started calling the brand by its two syllables as à ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¹Ã‚  (kĆº-là ¨) as noted in the report of Chan Huang (2001). In the case of another popular soft drink, Sprite, it is a one-syllable brand that has been popularly known by its two-syllable name in China as à ©Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ª à §Ã‚ ¢ (xuĆº-bà ¬) which means snow-blue, which coincidentally also denotes coldness-related word which are very positive words in China for drinks (Chan Huang, 2001). 3.4 Word-Of-Mouth Communication China is predominantly a high context culture country, whereby information on purchase decision is usually referred to family members and friends. With 67% of Chinese consumers rely on word-of-mouth communication to know about a new brand as observed by Nunes, et al. (2010), and Chinese consumers rate word-of-mouth communication seven times more credible than television advertisements (Suessmuth-Dyckerhoff, Hexter, St-Maurice, 2008). Online discussion on the internet is also an effective tool of word-of-mouth communication albeit in a different forum. This leads to companies launching internet campaigns like KFCs China website focusing on interactive discussion with a Chinese web portal, QQ.com which is accessible at kfc.qq.com (Alon, Littrel Chan, 2009). The role of language in consumer behaviour relies heavily on getting a meaningful name in brand naming. Cross cultural translation must be approached sensibly to better understand culture of China. This is often a difficult task as direct translation is not easily achievable due to the fact that Mandarin is radically different from Roman-alphabet-based language. However if done correctly, the combination of chosen Chinese characters can play an important role, thus able to communicate product attributes and benefits, traditional or modern values, beliefs and customs (Fan, 2002; Alon, Littrel Chan, 2009). 4. The impact of Aesthetics on consumer behaviour: 4.1 Definition of Aesthetics Aesthetics relate to beauty and what the senses feel, see, touch, smell and appreciate. Aesthetics are of particular interest to the marketer because of their role in interpreting the symbolic meanings of various methods of artistic expression, colour and standards of beauty in each culture. The uniqueness of a culture can be spotted quickly in symbols having distinct meanings (Ghauri Cateora, 2006 p. 87). In the perspective of marketing and consumer behaviour the term aesthetics relate to the consumers five senses of vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell in response to an object and has a direct bearing on consumer behaviour. 4.2 The relevance of aesthetics for the Chinese Market To create an impact and succeed in China market and attract consumer by culturally adapting brand names to help the product become a success in China. Various industries need to take into consideration the Chinese rich culture. Colours Colour has significant value for the Chinese due to cultural superstition in terms of product logos and package designs. The colour red (especially when combined with the colour gold) became a symbol of good luck and prosperity (Toronto Star Newspapers, Ltd., 2010), however the colour black is deemed to bring bad luck or symbolises death. Logos Logo perception and designs can lead to attraction or distraction for the Chinese Consumer. Brand name, symbols and designs should not offend the local culture. Logo designs and shapes indicate the following: Even shapes like round and symmetrical signify prosperity, dynamism and harmony while uneven shapes indicate conflicts to the Chinese consumers. Numbers Numbers can be deemed to bring good or bad luck. Certain numbers such 8, 11 and 13 have positive connotation while 4 has been associated with bad luck in the Mandarin language (Fletcher, 2006). Good example for auspicious number: 6, 8 and 9 like the official opening ceremony of the Beijing Olympics 2008 began at 8.00pm on 08/08/08 and non-auspicious numbers: 1, 4 and 7 denote bad luck where pronunciation of Si in Mandarin refers to death. Long-term brand viability is more likely as design is not based on of the moment creativity, but rather strategically timeless aesthetics that depict brand attitudes (Blumenthal, 2001). Henderson et al. (2003) suggest that the role of logo design in contributing to brand equity is of primary importance in less industrialized countries, when operating abroad, or in countries with logographic writing styles. India and China, for example, have diverse dialects, making language a significant barrier to communication. (Pittard, Ewing Jevons, 2007). Aesthetics and application to local Chinese customs is important for the success of international companies entering China. Consulting local Chinese experts to strategize market penetration in terms of aesthetics looking at wording, logo, designs and meaning will further enhance their success to Chinese consumers resulting in long term customer satisfaction. 4.3 Aesthetics and Brand Names Mobile phone industry where the aesthetics and looks of the product is important to enhance customer satisfaction and long term commitment is a good example. In China, study was done conducted to test the customer behaviour towards selected brands within the Chinese mobile phone market. The outcome indicates brand image influences Chinese consumer behaviour but the study is not conclusive as factors like language and location of study could limit the bigger picture. (Ogba Tan, 2009) Chinese consumers have readily embraced global brands such as Louis Vuitton, BMW, Nokia, Starbucks and McDonalds. Customisation and localisation are the key words in the strategies of foreign companies catering to the needs and preferences of Chinese consumers. (Euromonitor International from trade sources/national statistics, 2008). 5. Conclusion The impacts of culture on consumer behaviour from the perspective of values, languages and aesthetics in China have been proven to be complex and challenging tasks to the global marketers. Thus, a thorough understanding of culture is a necessary ingredient in the development of effective marketing strategy (Yaprak, 2008). The result of rapid industrialization has prompted the emergence of consumer market and culture. Consumer preferences are also changing in tandem with higher disposable income, increased consumer information and wider product selections and distribution channels which highlights the emerging growth of hedonic consumption values. The upshot of this is that the Chinese consumers are looking for more fun, gratification and pleasure in their consumption experience and it is found that hedonic values have a positive impact on the choice and consumption patterns of the Chinese consumers especially for brand consciousness and preference for foreign brands (Wang Lin, 2009). Although cultural characteristics in China often seem to be permanently enduring, a closer analysis reveals that cultural inclinations change from time to time since societies adopt and adapt to different lifestyles and priorities. This is due to the fact that individuals which constitute a particular culture continuously alter their perceptions, attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviours in light of societal and global changes. These perceptions, attitudes, values and behaviours are typified by the buying patterns of the Chinese. During the Mao era, the word sexy was completely forbidden from general use by the public. This is because a sexy attitude was held to be synonymous with shamelessness (Faure Fang, 2008) and the wearing of short skirt by women was banned. However, these days not only the Chinese media freely discuss and portray sexuality in its colourful variety but the Chinese people confidently flaunt their freedom of dressing with all sorts of skimpy fashion. The annual China Sex Culture Festival in Guangzhou exemplifies how open China has become and is a testament to a major cultural shift. It would not go out of context to highlight here that during the infamous Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), the Chinese were all wearing grey and green Mao uniforms and that the roads were all full with black bicycles as the famous mode of transportation. These images remain only in grainy black and white photographs of the yesteryears since these days the Chinese, at least in the coastal megacities like Shang hai and Guangzhou clad themselves in fashionable dresses and drive big imported cars. These examples show that the shift in value perception and attitudes do have their impact on the consumer behaviour in China in the sense that culture does evolve from time to time and its evolution alters the preference of the buying masses. Cultural evolutions must then be understood by the international marketers so as to develop relevant, suitable and effective marketing strategy in the Chinese markets. In conclusion, culture and its various core elements including values, languages and aesthetics must be seen in a constantly growing perspective. This is the reason why the understanding and appreciation of culture and its limitations in the context of consumer behaviour needs to be broadened. Culture must thus be viewed as a dynamic and holistic force that constantly shapes and reshapes its elements according to the variables of time. The ability of globalisation and modernisation in impacting the Chinese consumer values are almost limitless in its scope and intent. However, China seems to have never given up its single most important cultural characteristics, which is the ability to manage paradoxes (Faure Fang, 2008). Therefore, whilst certain aspects of the culture are still adhered to, other values closely associated with that same culture is slowly or rapidly losing ground. Word count = 3995

Essay --

The two writers start off this article with the analysis of the reasons for the change of student records. There are two categories for the change of student records which are the change of student records before enrolment and that after enrolment. For the first term, it refers to new students who give up the education process. On the other hand, the change of student records after enrolment means once the graduate students reach the limit for a long period of time staying in university and should destroy the records by graduation and completing a course but for variety reasons like disciplines, tutors and students’ own reasons, the graduate students end their records by different means. Besides that, the authors did list the five types of the change of student records: graduation defence, completing a course, studying in school, leaving school and cannot complete a course. Generally, the graduate students from colleges or universities require 3 years for completing their studies as doctoral students need 3 to 6 years in studying while graduate students are 2 to 3 years. From 2005 to 2009,107 graduate students and 117 doctoral students among the newly recruited students of Xi’an Jiaotong University, China give up enrolment (the University recruits 3000 graduate students and 800 doctoral students every year). Therefore, this article further analyses the reasons for the change of student records in the following. A. The analysis of the reasons for the change of student records before enrolment: Statistic the annual average ratio of student who gives up enrolment: 1. 0.6% of graduate students and 2.6% of doctoral students shows that the amount of doctoral students giving up in studying is 2 per cent higher than graduate students. ... ...student record change administration systems. This is the reasonable and human student record administration system made by each university according to their conditions guided by the national macro-policy. This needs the administrators of student records keep pace with the times, summarize experiences and adapt to all kinds of environmental changes and continually correct it. 3) Enhance the initiative of student record administration and carry out warning mechanism. Setting up warning mechanism in student record administration can raise the initiative of teaching administrators and displays that the administration consciousness is strengthened. For example, warn the students half a year or three months earlier before reach the limit time. The tutors and schools prepare the defence work and avoid leaving school passively caused by insufficient time and preparation. Essay -- The two writers start off this article with the analysis of the reasons for the change of student records. There are two categories for the change of student records which are the change of student records before enrolment and that after enrolment. For the first term, it refers to new students who give up the education process. On the other hand, the change of student records after enrolment means once the graduate students reach the limit for a long period of time staying in university and should destroy the records by graduation and completing a course but for variety reasons like disciplines, tutors and students’ own reasons, the graduate students end their records by different means. Besides that, the authors did list the five types of the change of student records: graduation defence, completing a course, studying in school, leaving school and cannot complete a course. Generally, the graduate students from colleges or universities require 3 years for completing their studies as doctoral students need 3 to 6 years in studying while graduate students are 2 to 3 years. From 2005 to 2009,107 graduate students and 117 doctoral students among the newly recruited students of Xi’an Jiaotong University, China give up enrolment (the University recruits 3000 graduate students and 800 doctoral students every year). Therefore, this article further analyses the reasons for the change of student records in the following. A. The analysis of the reasons for the change of student records before enrolment: Statistic the annual average ratio of student who gives up enrolment: 1. 0.6% of graduate students and 2.6% of doctoral students shows that the amount of doctoral students giving up in studying is 2 per cent higher than graduate students. ... ...student record change administration systems. This is the reasonable and human student record administration system made by each university according to their conditions guided by the national macro-policy. This needs the administrators of student records keep pace with the times, summarize experiences and adapt to all kinds of environmental changes and continually correct it. 3) Enhance the initiative of student record administration and carry out warning mechanism. Setting up warning mechanism in student record administration can raise the initiative of teaching administrators and displays that the administration consciousness is strengthened. For example, warn the students half a year or three months earlier before reach the limit time. The tutors and schools prepare the defence work and avoid leaving school passively caused by insufficient time and preparation.

In Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen’s usage of letters allows the reade

In Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen’s usage of letters allows the reader to fully comprehend the situation and certain feelings of the characters. The Usage of Jane’s Letters in Pride and Prejudice In Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen’s usage of letters allows the reader to fully comprehend the situation and certain feelings of the characters. For example, the two letters sent by Jane Bennet to Elizabeth Bennet in Chapter 46 allow the novel to arrive at a turning point in many different aspects. The obvious purpose of the written letters is to inform the reader of the events at hand regarding Lydia Bennet and Mr. Wickham. However, these letters allow changes to take place in other relationships as well. Jane Bennet illustrates herself much in the letters that she composes. She is constantly optimistic and trusts people immensely, shown in the lines â€Å"But I am willing to hope the best, and that his character has been misunderstood.† Jane is constantly considering the feelings of other people and she conveys that she does not like to impose on others. She states in the second letter, â€Å"Now as the first shock is over, shall I own that I long for your return? I am not so selfish, however, as to press for it, if inconvenient.† Even in her opening statement in the first distressed letter Jane states, â€Å"I am afraid of alarming you-be assured that we are all well.† These statements easily show her compassion and consideration for others. When describing the state of the rest of the family because of Lydia’s actions, Jane precedes each of their names with the word â€Å"poor.† For example, she writes â€Å"my poor mother is really ill and keeps to her room,† and â€Å"Poor Kitty has anger for having concealed their attachmen... ...y because of the incorrect address is vital in conveying Jane’s emotions to the reader. It is apparent that Jane Austen intended these two solitary letters to play a vital role in the novel. These letters single-handedly brought on the climax of the novel and allowed many different relationships to develop. If the letters were not available to the reader or even simply mentioned, the novel would be lacking in a connection with the reader. These letters convey emotions and worries that otherwise might not be discussed in person, such as the negative comments about Mr. Wickham and his supposed intentions for Lydia Bennet. The letters also allow the reader to personally imitate the internal reactions of the original receiver in the novel. Jane Bennet’s two letters to Elizabeth certainly fulfill these literary functions and are quite essential to the novel.

Client Server Model Essay

The Internet is based on a client-server model, where every day, millions and millions of computers are accessing thousands and thousands of servers. Many of the things we use our computers for today make use of this model, from web browsing to electronic mail. Over the years, competing models of networking emerged to compete with the client-server model. The peer-to-peer model has been a prominent competitor with vast differences. Mainframe architecture, from which the client-server evolved, still has a place in business today and the two compete on the back-end. This essay will discuss the client-server model, and compare it with other models it has been in competition with – the peer-to-peer model, and mainframe architecture. THE CLIENT-SERVER MODEL The client-server model is a distributed application structure that involves tasks being partitioned between servers, which are responsible for providing services or resources, and clients, which do the service requesting. Clients are usually a personal computer, and recently have been expanded to include mobile devices. The client does not share its own resources with the server, but it does initiate requests for services or content from the server. Client/server systems evolved from mainframe architecture when it was realized that personal computers had become more self-sufficient, both in data storage and processing power, not to mention more affordable. Personal computers were able to offer just about all the features that were offered on mainframe computers. At the outset, the client-server model existed as a two-tier architecture – a client and an application server, in which the client acts as a presentation layer that communicates with the server, a centralized data layer. Most client-server architectures are two-tier. In fact, most Internet applications are simple two-tier applications. This includes Email (SMTP), web browsing (HTTP), and file transfer applications (FTP). Each application for these protocols presents a graphical user interface (GUI) that helps a user interact with the server. A third tier was later added, as a functionality layer to exist between the presentation layer and the data layer. This layer, referred to as the application tier, was added to manage requests made from the client. This is where scripts are performed before information is requested from the data storage layer. In terms of our class, this is where our ASP code would be executed to query the Northwind database. As mentioned above, the client-server model is the most commonly used model with regards to the Internet. There are many advantages to using this model over others, but at the same time, there are some disadvantages to using the model. CLIENT-SERVER MODEL ADVANTAGES The client-server model has several advantages. The first and foremost is centralization. Having one central server makes it much easier to manage a network. For instance, having a central server that stores a network’s user names and passwords, as well as each user’s privilege rights makes it much easier than having to manually configure the rights on each computer on the network. Without the distribution of resources that client-server architecture allows, if a network contained multiple servers, each one would need to be updated individually with user login and privilege information. System updates can also be made to many computers at once from any computer on the network, instead of having to do so one by one. Scheduled backups made by the server make it easier to recover lost files. Leaving each individual client on a network the responsibility of backing up its own computer can prove to be complicated and dangerous. Centralization also allows security measures to be distributed throughout the network by the server, making it safer than a peer-to-peer network. It also means that users on a network using the client-server model can use shared printers and storage space, which can cut down on costs. Having central storage on the server is also a good way for client computers to save hard drive space and prevent redundancy. The second advantage is its ease of scalability. Adding several computers in a client-server model is much easier than doing so in a peer-to-peer model. This is because an administrator can easily install any necessary applications to computers added to the network from the server. Making any additions to a client-server network will not cause any interruptions to other clients on the network. Having a client-server setup also ensures safer remote accessibility. CLIENT-SERVER MODEL DISADVANTAGES Although the client-server model has many advantages, it does come with some disadvantages. Though some costs can be cut using a client-server-model as mentioned above, the server must be robust and powerful enough to support the client computers on its network. Because of this, there is a large cost that goes along with operating the servers. Another disadvantage that adds cost is the maintenance needed for the servers. Most client-server networks need at least a network administrator to oversee and maintain the network. This is something that is not needed in a peer-to-peer network, since there is no centralized server, and each client node is responsible for maintaining itself. Because a client-server based network relies on a central server, each client in the network is reliant on the server to operate. If the server goes down for any reason, the network will not be able to function. To ensure that this doesn’t happen, many networks now employ backup servers, which of course, is an extra cost. Congestion is also a possible issue for networks using a client-server model. Again, since the centralized server is handling the brunt of traffic from clients on the network, if many client computers are using the network at the same time, it will slow down the server’s response.

Develop Health and Safety and Risk Management Policies,

Legislative frameworks for Health and Safety and risk management within our work setting include: ?The Health and Safety at work Act 1974. This is in place to ensure that all people are kept safe at work or entering a workplace. We have the Health and Safety policy in place to protect all people. The staff are given a copy and this is reviewed to ensure that the nursery if keeping within the guidelines. ?Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981. This is to make sure that all staff has access to first aid within the workplace.At Roselodge we have a first aid kit on each floor and the kitchen. This is checked regularly by the Health and Safety Officer to keep the stock correct. ?Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995. This is in place to give settings responsibility for reporting any injuries and illnesses to the HSE or local authority. Any of these are reported within the nursery and we ensure that accident forms are completed correct ly and that everyone is aware of the illnesses and exclusion periods.Control of Substance Hazardous to Health (COSHH) 2002.This is to ensure that workplaces minimise the risk of substances being hazardous to health. This is covered within the Health and Safety policy and all staff are made aware of the substances and how to correctly store these around the nursery. We have COSHH reports in case of an emergency with any of the COSHH products within the nursery. ?Data Protection 1998. This is to ensure that all personal information is kept safe and confidential. We have a confidentiality policy in place which all staff are made aware of. This is a written policy and reviewed.All information stored on paper is locked away and electronic information is password protected. ?Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992. This is to keep people safe and be provided with the appropriate protective clothing when dealing with a situation that could cause cross infection, free of char ge. ?Food Safety Act 1990, Food Hygiene Regulations 2006. This is to ensure that risks with food handling are minimised. Food Safety policy is written and people are made aware. Hygiene facilities are available through-out the nursery and procedures are adhered to at all times.Staff dealing with food has attended training on Food Safety.Children Act 1989, Children Act 2004. This sets boundaries and gives help to local authorities so that they can regulate official intervention in the interest of children. We ensure that the children are kept safe and any concerns are deal with appropriately and efficient. Our setting has over 5 employees and to keep with the Health and Safety Act 1974 we have written policies in place and people are made aware. We review these annually or more regular if needed.We have recently updated the policies to come in line with the Early Years Statutory Framework. We have risk assessments that are reviewed annually or if an incident occurs then more regularl y. It is stated within the staff contract and job description that all must comply with the written Health and Safety policies in place. The staff are regularly updated on Health and Safety in the staff meetings. All staff follow the procedures and if there is a case that they do not then it could be a risk of losing their job or causing injury to themselves or others.HSE inspectors can enter the workplace at any time. If finding a problem or breach of the law is made, then we would need to follow the HSE Enforcement Policy statement: ?Informal – minor incident. We would be advised to comply with the law and be given written confirmation with the legal requirement and the best practice advice. ?Improvement notice – served when a serious breach of the law has been committed. The inspector discusses the improvement notice and clarifies the issues. Notice will be given and that will state what issue is, when it needs to be completed and why it has been served.21 days is g iven to remedy or time for the workplace to go to an industrial tribunal if they wish ?Probation notice – situation which could be a risk to serous personal injury. The issue will be immediately halted and job stopped and the staff will not be able to carry this out again until the issue has been rectified. Risk assessment and risk management are essential within a childcare setting. It is important for all involved to be aware of how to minimise risk and control risk, this supports the children to then be able to assess and take controlled risk within the workplace.These assessments are completed and reviewed annually, new risk assessments are made when necessary. Health and Safety checks are completed daily at the start and end of the nursery day. If any risks or hazards are highlighted, these are dealt with immediately or the hazard is removed so not to cause an injury to anyone in the workplace. It is essential that all staff are aware of how to control risk and understan d how to support risk taking safely. This is done in house training and discussions also through external courses.

Metaphor and Translation Essay

Abstract Metaphor has been widely discussed within the discipline of Translation Studies, predominantly with respect to translatability and transfer methods. It has been argued that metaphors can become a translation problem, since transferring them from one language and culture to another one may be hampered by linguistic and cultural differences. A number of translation procedures for dealing with this problem have been suggested, e. g.  , substitution (metaphor into different metaphor), paraphrase (metaphor into sense), or deletion. Such procedures have been commented on both in normative models of translation (how to translate metaphors) and in descriptive models (how metaphors have been dealt with in actual translations). After a short overview of how metaphor has been dealt with in the discipline of Translation Studies, this paper discusses some implications of a cognitive approach to metaphors for translation theory and practice. Illustrations from authentic source and target texts (English and German, political discourse) show how translators handled metaphorical expressions, and what effects this had for the text itself, for text reception by the addressees, and for subsequent discursive developments. # 2004 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Conceptual metaphor; English; French; German; Metaphorical expression; Translation Studies 1. Introduction Metaphor, as a typical feature of communication, presents a challenge for translation too, both for the practising translator and for its treatment in the discipline of Translation Studies. In the literature on translation, the two main issues have been, ? rstly, the translatability of metaphors, and secondly, the elaboration of potential translation * Tel. : ? 44-121-359-3611Ãâ€"4224; fax: ? 44-121-359-6153. ? E-mail address: c. schaeffner@aston. ac. uk (C. Schaffner). 0378-2166/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. pragma. 2003. 10. 012 1254 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 procedures. In most cases, the argumentation is based on a traditional understanding of metaphor as a ?  gure of speech, as a linguistic expression which is substituted for another expression (with a literal meaning), and whose main function is the stylistic embellishment of the text. It is only recently that a cognitive approach to metaphor has been applied to Translation Studies. In this article, I want to illustrate on the basis of some examples from the language pair, English and German, what a cognitive approach could offer to the description of metaphors in translation. The discussion proceeds primarily from the perspective of the discipline of Translation Studies. In taking this approach, it is also possible to explore how the cross-linguistic and cross-cultural perspective of translation can contribute to metaphor theory. 2. The treatment of metaphor as a translation problem Translation and interpreting as activities have existed for many centuries, and there is a long tradition of thought and an enormous body of opinion about translation (cf. Delisle and Woodsworth, 1995; Robinson, 1997). But it was not until the second half of this century that Translation Studies developed into a discipline in its own right (cf. Holmes, 1988; Snell-Hornby et al.  , 1992). Although at ? rst conceived as a subdiscipline of applied linguistics, it has taken on concepts and methods of other disciplines, notably text linguistics, communication studies, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, pragmatics, comparative literature, and recently, cultural studies. Instead of a uni? ed theory, we have a multiplicity of approaches, each of which focuses on speci? c aspects of translation, looks at the product or the process of translation from a speci? c angle, and uses speci? c ? terminology and research methods (cf. Chesterman, 2000; Gentzler, 1993; Schaffner,  1997b; Stolze, 1994). The phenomenon of metaphor has regularly been of concern to translation scholars who have argued about problems of transferring metaphors from one language and culture to another. The arguments brought forward need to be seen within the context of a heterogeneous discipline, i. e. , with respect to the speci? c model of translation within which the scholars approached their topic. I will therefore begin by giving a brief overview of the most prominent approaches to translation and provide a short account of how metaphor has been dealt with in the discipline of Translation Studies. Linguistics-based approaches de? ne translation as transferring meanings, as substituting source language (SL) signs by equivalent target language (TL) signs (e. g. , Catford, 1965). The source text (ST) is to be reproduced in the TL as closely as possible, both in content and in form. Since the aim of a translation theory has often been seen as determining appropriate translation methods, language systems (as langues) have been studied in order to ? nd the smallest equivalent units (at the lexical and grammatical levels) which can be substituted for each other in an actual text (as parole). Textlinguistic approaches de? ne translation as source text induced target text (TT) production (Neubert, 1985). The text itself is treated as the unit of translation, and it is stressed that a text is always a text in a situation and in a culture. Therefore, consideration needs to be given to situational factors, genre or text-typological conventions, addressees’ knowledge and expectations, and text functions. The central notion of equivalence is now ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1255 applied to the textual level, and de? ned as communicative equivalence, i. e., a relationship between the target text and the source text in which TT and ST are of equal value in the respective communicative situations in their cultures. Functionalist approaches de? ne translation as a purposeful activity (cf. Nord, 1997), as ? ? transcultural interaction (Holz-Manttari, 1984), as production of a TT which is appropriate for its speci? ed purpose (its skopos) for target addressees in target circumstances (cf. Vermeer’s ‘skopos theory’, e. g. , Vermeer, 1996). The actual form of the TT, its textual– linguistic make-up, is therefore dependent on its intended purpose, and not (exclusively) on the structure of the ST. The yardstick for assessing the quality of the target text is, thus, its appropriateness for its purpose, and not the equivalence to the source text. More modern linguistic approaches acknowledge that translation is not a simple substitution process, but rather the result of a complex text-processing activity. However, they argue that translations need to be set apart from other kinds of derived texts, and that the label ‘translation’ should only be applied to those cases where an equivalence relation obtains between ST and TT (House, 1997; Koller, 1992). Equivalence is probably the most controversial notion in Translation Studies. Some translation scholars reject this notion outright, arguing that by retaining ‘equivalence’ in the vocabulary, translation scholars sidestep the issue that ‘‘it is difference, not sameness or transparency or equality, which is inscribed in the operations of translation’’ (Hermans, 1998: 61). This view is also expressed in current approaches that are inspired by postmodern theories and Cultural Studies, which argue that texts do not have any intrinsically stable meaning that could be repeated elsewhere (e. g. , Arrojo, 1998; Venuti, 1995). For Venuti, the target text should be ‘‘the site where a different culture emerges, where a reader gets a glimpse of a cultural other’’ (Venuti, 1995: 306). In the course of its development, the focus of Translation Studies has, thus, shifted markedly from linguistic towards contextual and cultural factors which affect translation. Major inspiration for the development of the discipline has also come from research conducted within the framework of Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS), aiming at the description of translating and translations ‘‘as they manifest themselves in the world of our experience’’ (Holmes, 1988: 71). Research here includes studying the socio-historical conditions in which translations are produced and received, identifying regularities in translators’ behaviour and linking such regularities to translation norms which operate both in the social event and the cognitive act of translation (cf. Toury, 1995). DTS and postmodern theories thus de? ne translation as norm-governed behaviour (Toury, 1995) and/or a cultural political practice (Venuti, 1996: 197). The contrast between normative models (what a TT should look like) and descriptive models  (what TTs actually do look like) is also evident in the discussions about metaphor translation. Metaphor has traditionally been described as an individual linguistic phenomenon (a metaphorical expression) which can become a translation problem. Most scholars use the same terms as those applied in semantic theories (cf. Goatly, 1997), i. e. , terms like ‘image’ or ‘vehicle’ for the conventional referent, ‘object’ or ‘topic’ for the actual unconventional referent, and ‘sense’, ‘ground’, or ‘tenor’ for the similarities and/or analogies involved. Newmark (1981) explains these terms on the basis of the example rooting out the faults as follows: the object, that is, the item which is described by the metaphor, is faults. The image, that is, the item in terms of which the object is described, 1256 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 is rooting up weeds. The metaphor, that is, the word(s) used in the image, is rooting out, and the sense, which shows in what particular aspects the object and the image are similar, is (a) eliminate; and (b) do so with tremendous personal effort. He argues that in translating this ?  metaphor, a verb such as eliminer in French, or entfernen in German, would not do, ‘‘unless the phrase was of marginal importance in the text’’ (Newmark, 1981: 85). These arguments re? ect the two main concerns in Translation Studies, the translatability of metaphors, and procedures to transfer them from a source language into a target language. In equivalence-based approaches, the underlying assumption is that a metaphor, once identi? ed, should ideally be transferred intact from SL to TL. However, cultural differences between SL and TL have often been mentioned as preventing such an intact transfer. For Dagut (1976: 22), a metaphor is an ‘‘individual ? ash of imaginative insight’’, a creative product of violating the linguistic system, and as such, highly culture speci? c. Its main function is to shock its readers by creating an aesthetic impact. In Dagut’s view, the effect of shock is to be retained in a translation, and if linguistic and cultural factors hinder this effect, then he maintains that the metaphor cannot be translated. For illustration, he uses Hebrew metaphors translated into English, and shows, for example, how Hebrew metaphors are closely connected to Biblical stories and thus culture speci?  c (as in the case of the verb form ne’ekad—‘bound’, i. e. , metaphorically, ‘bound like Isaac for the sacri? ce’). Most authors agree that the image in the ST cannot always be retained in the TT (e. g. , because the image that is attached to the metaphor is unknown in the TL, or the associations triggered by the SL metaphor get lost in the TL), and subsequently several translation procedures have been suggested as alternative solutions to the ideal of reproducing the metaphor intact. For example, van den Broeck (1981: 77) lists the following possibilities. 1. Translation ‘sensu stricto’ (i.e. , transfer of both SL tenor and SL vehicle into TL). 2. Substitution (i. e. , replacement of SL vehicle by a different TL vehicle with more or less the same tenor). 3. Paraphrase (i. e. , rendering a SL metaphor by a non-metaphorical expression in the TL). Van den Broeck provides these modes of metaphor translation as a tentative scheme, i. e. , as theoretical possibilities. By linking them to categories of metaphor (lexicalized, conventional, and private metaphors) and to their use and functions in texts, he presents some hypotheses about translatability. In the tradition of DTS, van den Broeck sees the task of a translation theory not in prescribing how metaphors should be translated, but in describing and explaining identified solutions. He therefore argues that detailed descriptive studies of how metaphors are actually translated would be required to test the suggested modes and his hypotheses. In contrast to van den Broeck’s descriptive framework, Newmark’s translation procedures are presented in a prescriptive way, with the aim of providing principles, restricted rules, and guidelines for translating and translator training. He distinguishes between ? ve ? types of metaphors: dead, cliche, stock, recent, and original. In his discussion of stock metaphors, he proposes seven translation procedures, which have frequently been taken up in the literature. These procedures are arranged in order of preference (Newmark, 1981: ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1257 87–91). Newmark’s focus is on the linguistic systems, and his arguments can be linked to the substitution theory of metaphor (cf. Goatly, 1997: 116f). (All examples given here for illustration are Newmark’s own examples). 1. Reproducing the same image in the TL, e. g. , golden hair—goldenes Haar. 2. Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL image which does not clash with the ? TL culture, e. g. , other fish to fry—d’autres chats a fouetter. ? 3. Translating metaphor by simile, retaining the image, e. g. , Ces zones cryptuaire ou s’ ? ? elabore la beaute. —The crypt-like areas where beauty is manufactured. According to Newmark, this procedure can modify the shock of the metaphor. 4. Translating metaphor (or simile) by simile plus sense (or occasionally a metaphor plus ? sense), e. g.  , tout un vocabulaire molieresque—a whole repertoire of medical quackery ` such as Moliere might have used. Newmark suggests the use of this compromise solution in order to avoid comprehension problems; however, it results in a loss of the intended effect. 5. Converting metaphor to sense, e. g. , sein Brot verdienen—to earn one’s living. This procedure is recommended when the TL image is too broad in sense or not appropriate to the register. However, emotive aspects may get lost. 6. Deletion, if the metaphor is redundant. 7. Using the same metaphor combined with sense, in order to enforce the image. Toury (1995: 81ff) points out that these translation procedures start from the metaphor as identified in the ST, and that the identified metaphor (the metaphorical expression) is treated as a unit of translation. He argues that from the perspective of the TT, two additional cases can be identified: the use of a metaphor in the TT for a non-metaphorical expression in the ST (non-metaphor into metaphor), and the addition of a metaphor in the TT without any linguistic motivation in the ST (zero into metaphor). This view deals with metaphor not as a translation problem (of the ST), but as a translation solution. In his descriptive study of ? the translation of verb metaphors (for the language pair Swedish and German), Kjar (1988) included such an inverse analysis as well, but did not go much beyond a presentation of statistical findings. Kurth’s (1995) findings, too, are derived from a descriptive analysis of actual translations. Based on the interaction theory of metaphor (cf. Goatly, 1997: 117ff) and on scenes and frames semantics as applied to translation (Vannerem and Snell-Hornby, 1986), he illustrates how several metaphors interact in the construction of a macro-scene. In German translations of works by Charles Dickens, he shows which TL frames have been chosen for a SL scene (e. g. , ‘humanizing’ objects by anthropomorphical metaphors) and what the consequences are for the effect of the text (e. g. , weakening of an image). 3. Metaphors from the cognitive linguistics perspective: consequences for Translation Studies The cognitive approach to metaphor, largely initiated by Lakoff and Johnson’s Metaphors We Live By (1980), can contribute new insights into translation as well. This approach, however, is only gradually taking root within Translation Studies (e. g. , Al? Harrasi, 2000; Cristofoli et al. , 1998; Schaffner, 1997a, 1998; Stienstra, 1993). The main 1258 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 argument of the cognitive approach is that metaphors are not just decorative elements, but rather, basic resources for thought processes in human society. Metaphors are a means of understanding one domain of experience (a target domain) in terms of another (a source domain). The source domain is mapped onto the target domain, whereby the structural components of the base schema are transferred to the target domain (ontological correspondences), thus also allowing for knowledge-based inferences and entailments (epistemic correspondences). Such models are largely encoded and understood in linguistic terms. In cognitive linguistics, the term ‘metaphor’ is used to refer to this conceptual mapping (e. g. , ANGER IS THE HEAT OF A FLUID IN A CONTAINER),1 and the term ‘metaphorical expression’ is used to refer to an individual linguistic expression that is based on a conceptualization and thus sanctioned by a mapping (e.g. , ‘I gave vent to my anger’). Establishing the conceptualization on which a particular metaphorical expression is based is relevant to translation, too. Such a perspective provides a different answer to the question of the translatability of metaphors. Translatability is no longer a question of the individual metaphorical expression, as identi? ed in the ST, but it becomes linked to the level of conceptual systems in source and target culture. In what follows, some implications of  such a cognitive approach to metaphors for translation theory and practice are illustrated. On the basis of authentic source and target texts, I describe how translators have handled metaphorical expressions. This description is linked to a consideration of the effects of such translation solutions on the text and its reception by the addressees. The examples come from political texts, and the languages involved are primarily English and German. The focus of this paper is the description and explanation of identi? ed translation solutions. It is thus related to DTS, but, in contrast to van den Broeck, for example, I do not pretend to test pre-established translation schemes or hypotheses. My starting point is authentic TT structures for metaphorical expressions in STs. That is, the description is predominantly product-oriented,2 with the explanation being linked to text, discourse, and culture. In my conclusion, I point out some ways in which the discipline of Translation Studies can contribute to metaphor theory. 4. Metaphor and text In the following two examples, we have an identical metaphorical expression in the ? German ST, Brucke (bridge), but it has been handled differently in the TTs (both extracts come from speeches by the former German Chancellor Helmut Kohl): 1 In this metaphor, ontological correspondences are, for instance, ‘the container is the body’, ‘the heat of fluid is the anger’; epistemic correspondences are then, for instance, ‘when the fluid is heated past a certain limit, pressure increases to the point at which the container explodes’ (source) and ‘when anger increases past a ? certain limit, pressure increases to the point at which the person loses control’ (cf. Kovecses, 1986: 17f). 2 A process-oriented analysis, i. e. , an analysis of the actual cognitive processes in the translator’s mind during the translation act, would add valuable insights as well. Moreover, such a perspective would also test the validity of Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) theory. For example, one could test whether translators, as text receivers and interpreters, actually do access conceptual metaphors when constructing interpretations of metaphorical expressions (cf. Glucksberg, 2001), and how this might influence the decision-making for the TT structure. Research into translation processes (e. g. , most recently Danks et al., 1997; Kussmaul, 2000; Tirkkonen-Condit ? and Jaaskelainen, 2000) has not yet been conducted primarily with metaphors in mind. ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1259 ? ? Wir wollen die Brucke uber den Atlantik auf allen Gebieten—Politik und Wirtschaft, Wissenschaft und Kultur—festigen und ausbauen. We aim to strengthen and widen the transatlantic bridge in all spheres, in politics and commerce, science and culture. 3 ? So sind die amerikanischen Soldaten ein wichtiger Teil der Freundschaftsbrucke ? uber den Atlantik geworden. (literally: . . . an important component of the translatlantic bridge). The American forces in Germany are thus an important component of transatlantic friendship. (emphasis are mine) How (if at all) can traditional translation procedures account for these different solutions? Applying Newmark’s translation procedures, we could say that in the ? rst case, the procedure is metaphor for metaphor (i. e. , reproduction of the image), whereas in the second case the metaphor has been deleted. These texts would be examples of what Newmark calls ‘authoritative texts’, and in his guidelines to translators he states that in such texts, metaphors should be preserved. As a second criterion to guide the translator’s decision, Newmark suggests the importance of the metaphor in the text. The ? rst extract comes from Kohl’s speech on receiving the Honorary Freedom of the City of London (18 February 1998), the second one from his speech at the ceremony at Tempelhof Airport to commemorate the Berlin Airlift on the occasion of the visit of President Clinton (14 May ? 1998). The Berlin Airlift is known in German as Luftbrucke (literally: ‘bridge in the air’). In the London speech, the 50th anniversary of the Airlift is shortly mentioned, but it is not the ? actual topic of the speech. In the Tempelhof speech, however, the Luftbrucke is the actual topic, and it is used frequently in the short text, thus contributing to the structure of the text. Based on these considerations, Newmark’s recommendation presumably would be: metaphor into same metaphor in the ? rst case, but metaphor into sense in the second case. If we describe this authentic example on the basis of a cognitive approach, ? metaphorical expressions such as Brucke are considered ‘‘in the light of the metaphorical concept of which they are manifestations, and not as individual idioms to be ?tted into the target text as well as they can’’ (Stienstra, 1993: 217). In this case, one and the same historical event was conceptualized in different ways by different cultures, using different metaphors. The source domain of the English ‘airlift’ is a TRANSPORT domain, focusing on the medium (air), the action, and involving a direction (from–to). In the German ? Luftbrucke, the source domain is an ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURE, focusing on the ? medium and the structural object. As said above, the anniversary of the Luftbrucke is the actual topic of Kohl’s Tempelhof speech; but is the bridge indeed the dominant metaphor in the text as a whole? In other words: what is the underlying conceptual metaphor by which ? the metaphorical expression Freundschaftsbrucke is sanctioned? A closer analysis of the text above shows that the argumentation is structured around the central idea of American–German friendship. In the ? rst ? ve paragraphs, Kohl gives an ? account of the historical event itself and of its political signi? cance. Luftbrucke occurs six 3 Translators are normally not identified by name in the case of translations being produced for the German government. 1260 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 times in these ? rst paragraphs, each time translated as Airlift, since each time it is used as a proper name. Kohl then links the historical aspect to the development of American– German friendship over the last 50 years, both at a personal level and at the governmental ? level. And it is here that he speaks of the Freundschaftsbrucke (exploiting the bridge image as a rhetorical means for the argumentative function of a political speech): [. . . ] in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten haben rund 7 Millionen amerikanische Soldaten bei uns in Deutschland Dienst getan. Gemeinsam mit ihren Familien waren es etwa 15 Millionen Amerikaner, die fernab ihrer Heimat, ihren Beitrag zur ? Erhaltung von Frieden und Freiheit leisteten [. . . ]. Im taglichen Kontakt mit ihren ? ? deutschen Nachbarn haben sie viele personliche Beziehungen geknupft. Diese wurden ? [. . . ] eines der Fundamente der engen Freundschaft zwischen unseren Volkern. Es ? ? ? sind ja nicht zuletzt die alltaglichen Erfahrungen und Eindrucke, die personlichen und menschlichen Begegnungen, die in diesen Jahrzehnten die deutsch-amerikanischen ? Beziehungen mit Leben erfullt haben. So sind die amerikanischen Soldaten ein ? ? wichtiger Teil der Freundschaftsbrucke uber den Atlantik geworden. 4 What we can see from such an analysis is that Kohl’s speech is structured around a metaphorical understanding of friendship: Germany and the USA are friends. Seeing the state metaphorically as a person seeking friendship involves a metaphorical conception of closeness. Thus, all references in Kohl’s speech to Kontakte, Beziehungen, Begegnungen (contacts, a dense network of personal ties, personal encounters) can be described as metaphorical expressions that are sanctioned by the conceptual metaphors A STATE IS A PERSON and INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS (see also Gibbs’ comments on primary metaphors (Gibbs et al., this issue)). One of the means which allows friends who live far apart to experience close personal contact, is a bridge. A bridge links two endpoints, here the USA and Germany (ontological correspondence), thus providing an opportunity for mutual contact (epistemic correspondence). ? From such a conceptual perspective, we can say that rendering Freundschaftsbrucke as transatlantic friendship does not really constitute a case of metaphor deletion. The conceptual metaphors A STATE IS A PERSON and INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS are present in both ST and TT. It is these conceptual metaphors that are relevant for the structure of the text and its overall function as a political speech. At the macro-level, the conceptual metaphors are identical in ST and TT, although at the micro-level a speci? c ? metaphorical expression in the ST (Freundschaftsbrucke) has not been rendered in exactly the same way in the TT. However, transatlantic friendship in the TT can equally be characterized as a metaphorical expression which is justi? ed by the same conceptual metaphors. 4 The authentic English translation of this passage reads as follows: Over the past decades some seven million American servicemen have been stationed in Germany. Together with their families, that makes about 15 million Americans who, in this country far from home, have helped, [. . . ] to safeguard peace and liberty. In their day-to-day contacts with Germans the American community here has built up a dense network of personal ties central to the close friendship between our two nations. It is not least this wealth of personal encounters, these everyday impressions and  experiences which make German–American relations a meaningful part of daily life. The American forces in Germany are thus an important component of transatlantic friendship. ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1261 If we take a cognitive approach, a ? rst aspect of metaphors in translation can therefore be described as follows: not all individual manifestations of a conceptual metaphor in a source text are accounted for in the target text by using the same metaphorical expression. This argument is in line with one of Stienstra’s (1993) ? ndings. On the basis of several Bible translations into English and Dutch, she illustrates that the conceptual metaphor YHWH IS THE HUSBAND OF HIS PEOPLE, which is a central metaphor of the Old Testament, was preserved at the macro-level, even if speci? c textual manifestations were changed or not accounted for in each individual case. There is another example in Kohl’s Tempelhof speech which provides insights into strategic uses of metaphors and their treatment in translation. In elaborating on German– American partnership in the world of today and tomorrow, Kohl says: ? Unser Ziel, Herr Prasident, ist es, den Bau des Hauses Europa zu vollenden. Dabei wollen wir, da? unsere amerikanischen Freunde in diesem Haus auf Dauer ihre feste Wohnung haben. (literally: [. . . ] We want our American friends to have a permanent apartment in this house. Our goal is to complete the construction of the European house—with a permanent right of residence for our American friends—and enable the family of European nations to live together side by side in lasting peace. (italics are mine) From a cognitive perspective, we can say that the metaphorical expressions Haus Europa, Haus, and feste Wohnung are all sanctioned by the underlying conceptual metaphor EUROPE IS A HOUSE, which is an example of an ontological metaphor (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980). Whereas in the ST, the structural elements have been lexicalized, the TT has made the entailments of the source domain explicit; that is, an apartment ensures a right of residence, and these are epistemic correspondences. Both ST and TT remain within the conceptual metaphor of a house, while the additional information in the TT  (‘‘and enable the family of European nations to live together side by side in lasting peace’’) can be seen as elaborating on this metaphor, thus also providing a conceptual link to the metaphor INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS which structures Kohl’s speech. Identifying metaphors and describing target text pro? les is a legitimate research aim for a translation scholar. An additional question concerns the causes and effects of particular translations (cf. Chesterman, 1998). I will illustrate this ? rst, by reference to the Haus Europa again, and then by commenting on the effects of a speci? c translation solution (fester Kern—hard core). Such an analysis needs to put the text into its historical context, accounting for its function, its addressees, etc. Metaphor is, thus, no longer a translation phenomenon of one particular text, but becomes an intertextual phenomenon. 5. Metaphor as an intertextual phenomenon The metaphorical expression Haus Europa ? gured prominently in the discourse of Helmut Kohl in the 1990s, speci? cally with reference to issues of European integration. Actually, the metaphor of the common European house was introduced into political discourse in the mid-1980s by the then leader of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev. As a 1262 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 re? ection of the ‘new political thinking’ in the Communist Party under Gorbachev, the conceptual metaphor EUROPE IS A HOUSE was to represent the idea of all European states, East and West of the ‘Iron Curtain’, living and working together in peaceful coexistence. The base schema for Gorbachev’s metaphor was a multi-story apartment block with several entrances, in which several families live, each in their own ? ats (i. e. , the prototypical house in bigger Russian towns). In his own discourse, Gorbachev hardly elaborated on the structural elements of a house, but most frequently stressed the rules and norms for living together in this common house. The rules of the house have to guarantee that every family can live their own lives, without interference from their neighbours, so that the common house is protected and kept in order (cf. Chilton, 1996; ? Schaffner, 1996). The Russian metaphorical expression dom was rendered as house in English5 and as Haus in German political discourse in reporting on Gorbachev’s new political ideas and aims, which were not readily welcomed in Western European countries. But more often than being rejected outright, the metaphor EUROPE IS A HOUSE was taken up and conceptually challenged. In British political discourse (especially in the second half of the 1980s), the structural aspects dominated in the argumentation, determined by features of the prototypical English house. That is, there are references to detached and semi-detached houses, to fences, and to questions such as who is to live in which room or on which ? oor.