Dell Computers (a): Field Service for Corporate Clients [Hbs 9-603-067]

Case: Dell Computers (A): Field Service for Corporate Clients [HBS 9-603-067] 1. What are the key challenges DELL should be concerned with as it enters the large scale server market? Support service in server market is more critical than in personal computer market, especially when the server is a large scale one, since a problem in server even for a short time could cause serious problem in the customer’s business. Having realized the importance, competitors such as Hewlett-Packard and IBM reduced their response time to enhance the quality of their support service.Dell also is extraordinarily committed to high-quality service, they proposed the response time as short as four hours. In order to accomplish their guaranteed lead time in highly volatile situation, Dell has two big challenges. (1) They should train number of technicians for a high cost. Support service for servers cannot be mainly depended on call center or service website as Dell did for personal computers. (2) T hey have to keep their inventory higher than desired in their operating philosophy where they believed there is an inverse correlation between the amount of inventory and the quality of information. . Should DELL outsource the four hour service level support or should DELL provide the service with in-house resources? Why or Why not? Dell should provide the service with in-house resource if they are to â€Å"win† in the server market because it has been successful in personal computer market with the strategy of â€Å"Dell direct model†. The computer manufacturer’s strength in personal computer market was to deliver high quality products and services tailored to meet customers’ needs.Potential corporate customers will consider purchasing Dell’s server expecting the same thing for servers. Just like Kapoor was wondering, the customers will not buy their servers, if the quality of Dell’s products and services were worse than its competitorsâ₠¬â„¢. If Dell outsources the support service, the quality of service and products will decrease for two reasons. First, they cannot keep entire control over the support service if they cannot train their own technicians.As the case says they value the experience in customer interaction resulting in high quality of their service. They cannot expect the same thing from another company who would do the service on behalf of Dell. Second, Dell has been able to improve the quality of its products by directly interacting with its clients and using the feedback from support service. If Dell loses the source of information or compromise the quality of information, the company will have difficulty to maintain its reputation in product quality.The information from the in-house support service will also help to keep its server parts inventory lean, given they can better estimate the needs of those parts with more accurate information. Of course the company could reduce training cost by outsourc ing support service. However, the price elasticity in server market is lower than in personal computer market since the potential problem that can be caused by bad support service and product is critically serious. Reliability is more important than the cost or the price they could reduce by outsourcing and compromising the quality of their service and product. . If DELL outsources the service support, then should it use IBM as a vendor to provide the service support? Why or Why not? Dell should not use IBM as a provider of the support service even if it decides to outsource the service. IBM may seem to be an attractive service provider because they are the one who can do the job the best. The company has more than 135,000 specialists in support service as well as long and extensive industry experience. However, IBM is a competitor in server market, the strongest one considering their market share.Even though IBM is willing to provide service to Dell, we cannot be sure that it will provide the same quality of service to Dell’s customers as to their customers. Furthermore, if IBM could interact with Dell’s customer frequently, there always is a chance for them to take the customers from Dell. The service provider could obtain critical information regarding Dell’s product, which could also be a cause for competitive loss for Dell. Again, Dell should not lose its opportunity to directly interact with their customer especially to their worst enemy in order to win in the market.

Liquor Advertisements

The television is one of today’s major sources of entertainment. It could not be denied that this particular innovation of technology attracts numerous audiences that share a certain agreement that television is indeed a primary source of relaxation to the weary minds of many people in the society. In fact, â€Å"According to the International Herald Tribune, over a billion TV sets cover the globe, 50  percent more than there were five years ago. In Japanese homes, TV sets outnumber flush toilets. Only about half of Mexican homes have a telephone, but just about every household has a TV. And many Americans have 25 or 30 channels to choose from. States the Tribune: â€Å"The cultural, political and economic effects of this global television revolution are enormous. .  .  . Some worry that all that TV watching will make the rest of the world lose its appetite for reading, as has already happened to two generations of Americans.† (Herald tribune, 1990, 3) Certainly, from this particular report, it could be observed that television has been taking over the other forms of entertainment ever since the time it was first introduced to the society. It could be noted too that as years pass, the simple innovation of a box like feature of a television continuous to involve in such a state that the said form of entertainment is able to meet the specific standard of relaxation for different types of audiences. There exists the large screen televisions, the flat screen TVs, the mobile televisions and so on and so forth (Anuradha, 1994, 34). From this point it could then be agreed upon by many that television fondness among the present generation towards the next generations is here to stay. However, the question is, with the large amount of hours spent by viewers in front of the television, how true is it to say that the habit of television viewing affects the viewers directly, leaving a great impact upon their lives as individuals? It could also be understood that television is among the major mediums used to host several advertisements that are posted for liquor beverages. To understand the impact of the system, understanding what television has originally made for could be the first step in the clarification. Television can plant the same idea in hundreds of millions of minds—all in the same instant! And unlike the printed page, it does not require its viewers to be educated in the complex art of reading, nor does it ask them to form their own mental images and impressions. It delivers its messages with pictures and sound and all the enticements they can produce. (Evra, 1997, 24) It did not take long for politicians to see the tremendous potential of television. In the United States, Dwight D.  Eisenhower used TV shrewdly in his 1952 presidential campaign. According to the book Tube of Plenty—The Evolution of American Television (Greenwood,1980), Eisenhower  won the election because he proved the more â€Å"merchandisable† candidate in the media. The book shows that TV may have played an even greater role in John F.  Kennedy’s victory over Richard M.  Nixon in the 1960 election. When the candidates debated on TV, Kennedy scored higher with viewers than Nixon did. Yet, audiences who heard the same debate over the radio felt that it had been a draw. Why the difference? Nixon looked pale and haggard, while Kennedy was robust and tanned, exuding confidence and vitality. After the election, Kennedy said of television: â€Å"We wouldn’t have had a prayer without that gadget.† (Evra, 1997, 25) â€Å"That gadget† continued to make its power felt worldwide. Some began calling it the third superpower. Satellite technology enabled broadcasters to beam their signals across national borders and even oceans. World leaders used TV as a forum to garner international support and denounce their rivals. Some governments used it to transmit propaganda into enemy countries. And just as governments had tried to control Gutenberg’s invention once they understood its power, many governments took tight hold of television. In 1986 nearly half of all nations were broadcasting only government-controlled programs. At present, there are numerous developments with regards the programs presented through the use of the satellite connections of televisions. News programs were among those, which primarily utilized the benefits brought about by television networking (Evra, 1997, 29). However, aside from this particular programming presentation, other recreational sorts of programs also found the said satellite networking system quite much effective in helping the society gain recreation and not simply information from utilizing the said technological gadget. Since then, entertainment and recreation became one of the most important factors of interest it television programming (Scheuer, 1999, 99). The production of soap operas, and fantasy based stories that are aimed to entertain especially the young audiences (Evra, 1997, 54). This is where the negative and positive effects of television on the human society enters the discussion. (A)   The Benefits of Television Television has made available some wholesome entertainment programs too. In the privacy of his home a person can enjoy a Shakespeare drama, the Metropolitan Opera, ballet and concerts. There is a television series produced in England that may be enjoyed with or without sound. When the actors talk to one another (which is very seldom) they also employ sign language. This makes available an entertaining and instructive program both for people who can hear and for those who cannot. (Awake! 1990, 29) The field of education has greatly benefited from television. It makes available a variety of instructive material with a full view of the teacher and of any experiments or visual illustrations that he may provide. One can learn about mathematics, various other sciences, basic household skills, languages and many other things on educational television. Many enjoy â€Å"visual essays† that couple a fine view of live performances in arts such as music or dancing with commentary by an expert in the field. Some countries employ TV to cut down their illiteracy rate (Littner, 1980, 25). Developing countries have found it an effective tool to train people for jobs where there are not enough qualified teachers. And television presentations can be stored on videotape for repeated use. Young viewers can often talk intelligently on matters that the pre-television generations never dreamed of; and in the case of very young children, TV may contribute to a larger vocabulary, though it often has the opposite effect on older youths. â€Å"But television is merely a means of communication. Whether it benefits you personally depends upon the type of programs that you watch. Many voices have been raised in protest at the poor quality of much TV programming. In the United States television has been criticized for â€Å"pandering to the lowest common denominator in public taste.† (Evra, 1997, 32) Certainly, the power of television viewing has mainly affected the ways by which the young learners are able to increase their vocabularies as well as their knowledge about the major factors of the society as well as the major branches of education, especially when they are viewing educational programs. In these terms, the fact that television also brings about benefits to the society is indeed proven. (B)   The Disadvantages of Viewing TV There are several factors of viewing that brings about negative effects to the human individuals. There are at least four major themes that characterize this particular impact. The said program themes in the television that brings about the disadvantages include (a) Sexual Immorality; (b) Corruption and Social Chaos or dishonesty; (c) fantasy and make believe; and (d) Violence (Anuradha, 1994, 24). These particular themes are usually the primary themes used by television programming that at some point attracts the larger amount of viewers form the public. Why is this so? According to psychology experts, people who usually watch television are those who are having not much of things to do; those who are not preoccupied enough with their jobs that they are able to spend long hours of the day sitting in front of their televisions (coon, 1999, 26). They are the main targets of the producers of programs in the television. Hence, to be able to gain much profit from them, these producers aim to tickle their interests through the utilization of the major themes that directly attract their attention (Anuradha, 1994, 54). Making believe is among the top themes used by producers in creating the programs that they present to the society. Movies and television series that are arranged in patterns of the fantasy themes have normally received much appreciation from public viewers (Scheuer, 1999). As for a fact, movies such as Harry Potter, the Terminator, Lord of the Rings and other more programs following the same theme attracted much of the population in the society. They are among the movies, which are considered to become the blockbusters of the years when they were first shown to the public. True, the relaxation that the said movies bring to its viewers is indeed incomparable. Psychologists again add that the need of people to rest from reality through believing in fantasy stories is indeed a defense mechanism of the society in facing the reality of life (Coon, 1999, 145). Watching movies that make them realize that they are powerful enough like â€Å"heroes† such as Spiderman and batman in facing their lives, effective and strategic in ways of facing their transgressions through the use of magic like Harry Potter; makes the human society feel like there are of no limits and that they are empowered in terms of fantasy to face the challenges that they meet everyday (Coon, 1999, 146). However, not all the audiences that are able to access the said movies are mature enough to understand that what they are seeing is simply make believe. In fact, 70% of the viewers of these particular themes are young children from the ages two towards the ages six, who are known to believe whatever they see in the television. They are not that much capable of setting apart the truth from make-believe. Hence, upon seeing the programs that were mentioned above, they are disposed of to beliefs that they are able to become like that of the characters that they see on television. Children as young as they are have no limitations as to what they are supposed to or not believe in. The trend of television toward the â€Å"new morality† is also a disheartening one. Startled viewers have seen shows that deal with homosexuality and lesbianism. Full frontal nudity has appeared on stations of the Public Broadcasting System. Comedy shows often feature off-color humor. And what about the â€Å"soap operas†? The pamphlet TV and the New Morality observes: â€Å"Daytime soap operas deal frankly with adultery and casually show unmarried couples in bed together.† (Awake! 1998, 23) Again, the young audiences are not addressed fairly in this part of the program arrangement of the television showing. Form this particular picture; it could be observed that the moral disposition of the children is rather placed in such a confusing status. Hence, when they grow older, their understanding of what is right and what is wrong is then misarranged that they be subjected to confusion when they are already facing the actual situations in life when they are the ones who are already expected on what is right and what is not. In terms of human relations, in bygone days when a person wished to learn of events or matters of local or world importance, he would have to get that information by direct communication with other people. Friends would gather at the village well or at the general store for an exchange of news and views. But with television, people may get the same information without bothering with their neighbors (Evra, 1997, 47). If they are not careful, they can allow television to quash their incentive to communicate with others. One writer spoke of TV watchers as being â€Å"anonymous island-audiences, newly separated from one another.† (Awake! 1998, 24)Certainly, television programs at some point ruins the doubtless relationships of humans with each other. The used to be loyally disposed relationships between humans are being directly affected by the doubtful ideas presented in televisions. Knowing both the advantages and the disadvantages brought about by television viewing, it should then occur to each individual that the importance of balancing television viewing with other activities away from it is an essential part in assisting the youths especially in their behavioral advancements towards adulthood that are actually directly affected by their practices in television viewing. Television and Liquor Advertisements WHAT is the aim of commercial advertising? Businesses say that their advertising provides a public service because it gives us information about their products. The International Advertising Association states: â€Å"To be properly informed the Consumer needs advertising. Informed choice is based on information. Advertising—in its broadest sense—is the vital conduit for that information between Producer and Consumer.† Of course, we all know that such advertising does more than merely inform—its job is to sell. It is not objective or neutral. Successful ads skillfully engage the mind of the consumer and motivate him to buy the product advertised. Recently, advertisements using sexuality as a way of persuading consumers to buy adult beverages has been a trend in the advertising industry. Why is this so? As we know the advertising business is enticed with the goal of targeting a specific group of consumers to attract to buy their products. As to clearly explain, to be strategically sound, an ad is usually carefully directed to a certain audience, whether it be children, housewives, businesspeople, or some other group. The message is crafted to appeal to the most important concerns of that audience. Then the ad is run in the media that will most effectively reach them. Before an ad is designed, a great deal of research goes into finding out about the group of people most likely to buy and use the product being advertised. Advertisers need to know who these people are, how they think and behave what they desire and dream of. Advertisers also consider informations about consumers such as who they are, where they live, what they buy and why. Knowing all these gives them the ammunition to write persuasive sales messages. Their targets will respond to persuasion; they won’t respond to bluster, our self-interests, or rhetorical arrows shot randomly into the air. And as obvious as it is, the prospect consumers of hard liquor products or adult beverages, which are men had been successfully persuaded by such kind of advertisements using sexuality. In fact, these kinds of advertisements have already been socially accepted as years passed in the advertising industry. The question is, is this kind of practice to be considered healthy? Could it be justified as to becoming socially accepted as a simple norm in the society? How should consumers react on this kind of persuasion? These questions and more shall be answered in the following paragraphs. The Reality behind Advertisements using Sexuality Ads are carefully crafted to appeal to the specific desires and values of the target audience. Perhaps an ad will appeal to the need to have fun, the hunger for security, or a yearning to be accepted by others. Maybe the ad will direct itself to a desire to impress others, to be clean, or to stand out as different. Indeed, advertisements could be in any form. It could be shown through music, visual materials such as posters, newspaper ads and the television, it could also be posted through the Internet. In fact, these ads are usually accompanied by women who almost wore nothing holding the beverage on one hand and the other hand flirting with the man whom they are luring to have a drink with. Yes, this has become a common trend. Although all the advertisements showing sexual patterns of persuasion are most likely addressed to the grown-ups, it still couldn’t be denied that it is not only them who are able to have access to these advertisements. As reality suggests, the advertisements specially shown in TV are not only viewed by adults but as well as young children. Of course the advertisers know that TV, as a medium of communication, has a profound effect. Their advertising conditions people mentally so that they will buy their products. Surely, the commercial leaders of the world are not so simple-minded as to throw away money if TV advertising has little or no effect. On the contrary, instead of buying, the innocent minds of children are more likely polluted with trash and lust, things that they should not even see. Not only that, Internet today is mostly accessible to anybody who would like to learn anything. Yet, behind the aims of learning something new, many youths stumble to the sites showcasing commercial ads regarding beverages that has a strong spirit affecting the aggressiveness of anybody who drinks it. The worst thing it, the ads are more often then not, posting pornographic materials along with the product they sell. Aside from this, teens that are able to watch these kinds of â€Å"short flicks† on sexuality are usually stimulated to do the same things they see. Unfortunately, many teenagers fail to see the real effects of these advertisements to them selves. As a result, grave conclusions on the matter have been accepted by the society as parts of norms already. Things such as premarital sex, grave sexual assaults between teenagers and cases alike. Yes, the advertisements showcasing the sexuality as a social norm prove to be quite disturbing. Knowing this, how should we react as consumers towards the said advertisements? Conclusion As conscientious consumers, we should be aware enough of what we buy from what we watch and what we see. Basing from the thing we see, we should be prompted to protect the children and teenagers from becoming victims of the effects of advertisements posting lust to be such a luring and desirable act for anybody. Regarding the said issue, it is more considerable to accept banning commercials and advertisements showcasing sexuality as a medium of consumer-persuasion-strategy. Why is this so much agreeable about? First, the effects of the said advertisements prove to be much overwhelming especially concerning the morality of many people specially youths worldwide. This fact should wake everybody up to face the reality that each of us has a responsibility to protect our society from being polluted by the many grave effects of the wide array of pornography which are usually seen in Adult beverage advertisements. Second, everyone is liable of being a responsible citizen for the next genera tin following the footsteps of the older generation. Third, we all have a battle against exploitation. Why is this related? It is because many of the talents used in the posters and commercials for adult beverages are more likely underage, or if not, at times because of financial reasons, they are encouraged to pose for certain ads. Although there is an Advertising code for beverage commercials stating that women posing for the said commercials should be aged 25 and above, it is still more often that not being abused. Yes, each person has his own reason for agreeing in making their society a better place to live in. One way of making it is cleaning the most influential power in the society which is the media.   One of the key solutions to this problem is our respect for each other. As we could see, if people tend to respect each other’s right and think of other’s welfare other than just thinking of the profit to be gained, the morality of humanity could be closely watched and circumstances such as commercials involving sexuality could be fairly avoided. References: â€Å"Advertising-How necessary?† (February 8,1988). Awake! Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. Brooklyn, New York. 3-4. Alcohol.gov. (2005). ALCOHOL BEVERAGES ADVERTISING CODE. www.alcohol.gov.au/advertising.pdf.   (November 6, 2007).   

City Life Vs Country Life Essay

There are many different factors to overcome on why city or country living is better. There is a lot to take into consideration because they greatly differ from each other. The fact of the matter is it is a difficult question because there is no right or wrong answer. Everyone is unique and has different preferences. There are positive and negative elements of both scenarios such as the education and job opportunities, Crime and death rates, as well as the environment/lifestyle and the cost of living. Everyone has their own opinion; depending on what you prefer is what makes one â€Å"better† per say. In the city, there are a lot more opportunities in college with a wider variety of degrees and programs to study resulting in more options of fields to pursue in the future. Some of the best schools in the United States are located in the city. Schools in the city have more extracurricular activities and after school clubs because there are more students to participate making it worth holding many activities after school. It gives students more leisure time to enjoy being active rather than going home to watch television on their free time. Job opportunities are also an advantage of living in the city, as there are many corporations, and businesses where there is a higher chance of getting hired most likely with a higher pay too. There are many different jobs fieldsto pursue in the city to fit your criteria. [M]any economists have reported that wages and job opportunities prove best in more densely populated areas. Larger cities typically provide ample opportunities for employment and entrepreneurial ventures, particularly in niche markets (Tigro).There also could be a disadvantage of job searching in the big city, as there are more people someone else may have more experience and a better education making it harder to land a job. School systems in the country are a bit different, schools are much smaller and do not offer as many programs limiting your educ ation. There are not as many colleges which force the students that do want more options for education to go away for school. This ultimately ends up costing much more; having to pay for housing, out of state tuition’s, and everything else that comes with living away from home. see more:disadvantages of living in the countryside There is indeed an  advantage of education in the country,which is a smaller classroom size.This gives a better student-teacher relationship and there is more one-on-one interaction resulting in a better understanding and more knowledge towards their studies. Job descriptions and duties can be quiet different then living in the city. In the country a lot of people grow, eat, and sell their own crops and what they don’t have they can trade off with their neighbors, whom do the same. It is a common procedure done in rural areas. Being that malls, restaurants, grocery stores, and the buildings in general are significantly spread apart. There are less job opportunities available and the ones that aremost likely do not have a high pay.The work force in smaller towns may be fueled by local manufacturing plants, nearby corporate headquarters or area colleges and universities. Depending on the location and the enterprise, it could be more difficult to make a small town business prof itable (Tigro). This is why some folksrely on other resources for extra funds. Money in the country is not needed as much as in the city because daily living and expenses are not as much The lifestyle/environment and cost of living of these two places greatly differ as well. The city life is a busy, hyper and an active lifestyle where convenience is at your side most of the time compared to living in the country. Population in the city is much greater so movies, malls, restaurants, grocery stores, and other reliable sources are at easy access because there are so many. This makes it very convenient to live in the city where errands are done much faster and easier and free time activities are right on hand when desired. Public transportation is another advantage of living in the city: there are taxies, buses or train stations on almost every corner in big cities making it easier to get around if you have no means of transportation. Since a lot of places in the city are so close, traveling from place to place does not affect much time in your daily schedule making your day more efficient. To come with all of these advantages, living expenses in the city are a bit high. â€Å"[I]n many urban areas, including Washington, D.C., San Francisco, and Boston, wor king families often struggle to find affordable housing. Indeed, the price of housing often gets the most attention when it comes to measuring the cost of city living. Rent and housing prices tend to be significantly higher in urban locations†(Palmer).Having all of these amenities at such close reach is convenient but there is always a downfall. In general, the cities with the lowest real estate prices per square foot were cities that have suffered from poor economic conditions for some time (Sauter). In order to live comfortably in the city, having a well-paid job is a must. The lifestyle and environment in the country has a calm, pure and peaceful scenery where everything is open, there are fewer buildings, minimum cars and people cluttering the area giving you a good sense of freedom and tranquility. Activities are very exciting and thrilling in the country also, consisting of hiking, fishing, horseback riding, four wheeling, plus many more. These fun activities can also be good for your health which is a great benefit too. Living expenses in the country are significantly less compared to the city. One individual that was reluctant to move from the city to the country says 10 years later, â€Å"My mortgage is less, taxes are less, car insurance is less, and our needs are less.† (Childs). There is less income in the country but that comes with fewer expenses. [Y]our cost of living could be 1/2 as much as it is in the city. Therefore, taking a $2-3 cut per hour isn’t such a big deal when you look at the big picture. Crime and death rates should definitely be on your check list when debating where to live, it is entirely up to an individual and what makes them more comfortable as it is something that needs to be looked at carefully, there are both advantages and disadvantages to both places. It is known that in the city there is an alarming higher crime rate. Studies demonstrate: the average annual 1993-98 violent crime rate in urban areas was about 74% higher than the rural rate.This is a disadvantage of living in an urban area in the city where crime is a lot more likely to occur to you or someone you know,this may make it uneasy to be comfortable where you live.Something to look at on the positive side is normally you have people around you for most part of your day because there are s o many individuals that live in the city. This makes it a little less likely for someone to be able to get away with something without someone seeing. Crime rates are just so much higher because there are a lot more people in the city increasing those chances. Crime rates in the country are at a comfortably low rate and for the simple fact that there is a smaller population. This is an advantage of living in the quiet rural areas having a more comfortable state of mind knowing murders, rapes, and other horrible crimes are less likely to arise in your hometown. You would assume that just as crime rates are at low  number numbered in the country; deaths from injuries would be as well.Brian Howard of The National Geographic says â€Å"For years, people have moved to the country to escape the dangers of big city life.†In this article a study done by researcher Sage Myers and his team says they attempted to classify deaths from injuries â€Å"across the rural-urban continuum.† They looked at data on 1,295,919 deat hs from injuries in 3,141 U.S. counties from 1999 to 2006. These deaths were caused by car accidents, shootings, falls, drowning, suffocation, and more†¦The researchers found that the risk of death from injury was 1.22 times higher in the most rural counties, compared with the most urban ones. Differences between the life in a city and in the country have many different options to weigh out and there is no right answer because it all depends on one’s personal opinion to decide which lifestyle is the best and how you would prefer to live. There are an extraordinary amount of advantages and disadvantages in education/job opportunities, Crime/death rates, as well as the environment/lifestyle and the cost of living of the two areas. They are both beautiful places in their own way. Work Cited: Childs, Laura. â€Å"Jobs in the country.† . http://www.goodbyecitylife.com/workathome/ruraljobs.htm. Date Accessed: 25 March 2014. Duhart, Detis.†Urban, Suburban, And Rural Victimization, 1993-98.† . http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=812. Date Accessed: 23 March 2014. Howard, Brian. â€Å"Why Cities Are Safer Than Rural Areas: 5 Surprising Facts.† . http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/07/130724-surprising-facts-cities-safer-rural-areas-injury-deaths/. Date Accessed: 23 March 2014. Palmer, Kimberly. â€Å"Why You Pay Extra to Live in the City.† . http://money.usnews.com/money/personal-finance/articles/2012/09/18/why-you-pay-extra-to-live-in-the-city. Date Accessed: 26 March 2014. Sauter, Michael. â€Å"The Ten Most (and Least) Affordable Cities to Buy a Home†. < www.foxbusiness.com>. http://www.foxbusiness.com/investing/2012/04/17/ten-most-and-least-affordable-cities-to-buy-home/

Social contract theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Social contract theory - Essay Example This means the citizens have political powers unless they decide to transfer the power to the government. The past philosophers agreed that the government originated from the people’s contract in the society. They believed that people pledge loyalty and compliance with the government so that it protects them and their belongings in return (Dye & Schubert 29). There are various aspects of the American social contract highlighted in the Preamble and declaration. The county’s social contract is derived from the preamble that states that people have to collaborate with government to promote justice and protection of individuals’ liberty. This means that the main aspects of the country’s social aspects reflected in the preamble are the partnership between the people and the government, and the people’s freedom. The Declaration also serves as the constitutional foundation of the American social contact. One of the aspects of the country’s social contract in the Declaration is the commitment to people’s natural rights. Pursuit to happiness was another aspect of the Declaration reflected in the county’s social contact (Billias

Homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 13

Homework - Essay Example She feared about how she would go about her life if Marty got married. This is also emphasized by the words of her sister who is a widow when she sought Marty’s mother’s companionship. She asked what her sister would do if her son, Marty got married. Therefore, in addition, Marty’s mother also represents the old-aged loners, not only to the singles but separated, divorced or widowed wives as well who would know and understand the difficulties people with similar circumstances undergo. In response to this character, Marty’s mother became like his son in the story who bore the burden of having a family living with him/her. The woman also portrays the fears of those approaching their old age as they think about their children having their own families. They worry about who would take care of them when they would be sick or helpless. Perhaps for one reason, Marty’s mother agreed to the request of her sister because she made sense in saying that in case Marty were to marry, they would be there for each other. It is also possible that she considered her because she wants to do to others as she would want them to do, knowing that she is in a similar dire situation as her sister. It is ridiculous to consider how prejudiced people have been during the 1950s. I always thought that racism was the worst during those times but knowing about how people looked at unmarried men, it just strikes me as senseless. The portrayal of the relationship between Marty and Angie is an effect of the prejudice that happened during that time. Being single at an age when they were supposed to be raising children, perhaps Angie considered himself made for his male friends who had the same dilemma that is why he acted strangely towards Marty. It could also be possible that he felt jealous of Marty or threatened that soon, his friend will be leaving him when his relationship with Clara

Deep Water Experts Financial Ratios Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Deep Water Experts Financial Ratios - Assignment Example Overall, the picture of the company’s financial health is quite promising, and a potential for expansion seemed to be a likely opportunity to explore. I. Short-term solvency or liquidity ratios Short-term solvency or Liquidity Ratios 2010 2011 Industry 1. Cash Ratio 1.08 1.56 0.21 2. Current Ratio 2.67 3.30 1.43 3. Interval Measure    96.92 n/a   4. Net working capital to total assets 0.12 0.17   n/a 5. Quick Ratio 1.80 2.20 0.38 Liquidity refers to the â€Å"availability of resources to meet short-term cash requirements† of the company (Larson and Jensen). In the case of Deep Water Experts’ finances, it refers to its ability to generate cash and cash-like assets to pay for its expenses as they come due, at least in the short-run horizon. Cash ratio indicates the amount of cash the company has for every unit of current liability falling due. In this area, the company has performed way better than the industry ratio. In 2011, it has a cash ratio of 1.56, whi ch means that it has 1.56 Arab Emirates Dirham (AED) to cover each unit of current liability falling due. This is way better than the industry’s 0.21 per unit of current obligation. ... Interval Measure indicates the company’s current asset per average daily operating cost, which includes cost of goods sold, operating expenses, and interests. While no industry average is available for comparison, on its own, the company seemed to have a large enough current asset compared to its average daily operating cost. It has a very solvent position in this regard, with almost 97 AED for each unit of average daily operating cost. The company has large investment in durable or fixed assets, as can be gleaned from its working capital to total assets ratio. While working capital has increased from 2010 to 2011, in relation to total assets, it is still pretty small, with only 17 percent compared to its total investment on its assets. Finally, the company’s quick ratio further confirms its high degree of solvency. It has a quick acid ratio 1.80 in 2010, improving further to 2.20 in 2011, while the industry performance is only 0.38. This company has lesser risk of defa ulting on its current obligations, as can be seen from its short-term solvency ratios. II. Long-term solvency or financial leverage ratios Long-term solvency has been defined as the â€Å"company’s long-run financial viability and its ability to cover long-term obligations† (Larson and Jensen). Further, it is concerned more on the company’s capital structure, or the composition of the company’s sources of finances to support its business activities, whether in financing, investing, or operating activities. The company’s debt to equity ratio measures the proportion of the company’s assets contributed by its owners, and those assets that are supplied by its creditors. In 2011, the company has one unit of debt for each unit of equity. In 2010, it has a

International Organisation and Successful Harmonisation of Essay

International Organisation and Successful Harmonisation of International Commercial Law - Essay Example At constant time, harmonization of sets of laws controls the danger that subject matter be considered or resolved another way in jurisdictions2. This is to elaborate on the process of harmonization to control trade. In terms of practical principles, harmonization will harmonize the pitfalls that might affect the harmonization process the progress of daily operations and in meticulous traverse –system and traverse –border interactions 3. Harmonization is generally arrived at via international agreements by which nations agree to commence exact rules into their state legislation. This is mainly conducted by harmonization bodies and harmonization instruments. On the other hand, lots of international agreements are on no account fully functional; harmonization is also sought after â€Å"representation rules" or " representation statutory necessities " which are recommended to state legislators for implementation. 1 Harmonization and use of, mechanical standards may donate to growing the simplicity of exchange of ideas and plummeting conflicts equal to those occasions where there may perhaps be a divergence of laws. Standardization of structures is also a precondition for interoperability of structures, and indispensable to any authentic transaction of any business in the trade market 5. The four harmonization techniques include Uniform choice of law rules, Lex mercatoria, Standard form contracts, and Uniform substantive law. Therefore, harmonization laws international law, national laws, and Lex Mercatoria. This classification brings information about the diversity of sources of international business commandment. The pitfalls of this categorization are the importance of condition -made law and the sustenance of solid law necessities. It means a convinced chain of command of worldwide trade law rules which protects international convention and compulsory nationwide rules over contractual conditions and business. Some of the disadvantages and advantag es of harmonization include the following. First of all harmonization is mainly meant to unification of laws. Second, they point towards at law reorganization when the existing commandment cannot manage with developing business-related practices. Whichever the issue is the final purpose are the expansion of a legal structure and the surroundings of intercontinental principles. Alongside these two aims, the compensation of harmonisation of law gives the impression to be self- obvious. On the other hand, the commerce society is a very unenthusiastic to accept any transform in commandment. The identical applies for in cooperation the practising lawyers and law implanters. Some of these advantages include; it facilitates business with plagiarism of barriers consequential from difficulties of dissimilar officially permitted regimes. (2) Harmonisation of intercontinental commercial commandment creates a legal structure adapt -made for intercontinental communication, disregarding dissimila r in the guideline of national communication The chances put across to avoid pitfalls in trade and asset needs legal systems of harmonization with harmonized regulations so as to increase financial behaviour. Harmonization

Five year career development plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Five year career development plan - Essay Example It is because of the reason that United States income tax legislations are believed to be difficult, several tax delivery bearers search for subcontractor support for taxes disposal, it is amazing that fifty nine percent of personal tax takings in 2007 were manipulated by salaried tax compilation services. A number of states have certification necessities for anybody who compiles and formulates tax delivery as a service provider. Some companies offer free of charge tax compilation application for personals; subjected with a lesser amount of fifty eight thousand USD of total revenue in fiscal year 2010. People who earn more than the above mentioned amount can utilize forms and digital applications of IRS manuscripts. Considering a 2005 analysis from the U.S. Government accountability office, the value of the tax service is huge; the return that is omitted in addition to the tax on its own is stuck between two hundred forty billion USD and six hundred billion USD per year that is utili zed in the tax service. For tax delivery compilation, Americans dispatch a quantity equivalent around twenty percent of the sum received in taxes. This proves that tax preparation service is really established for high returns, so the career Alpha II Omega Tax Services is bright. 1. Career Goals and Objectives Alpha II Omega Tax Services is a new established company which open its services via home based utility in the fiscal year 2010 with twenty five clients, however in this tariff period of the year 2011, the number of clients utilizing their services increases to hundred and twenty four, now Alpha II Omega Tax Services is planning to launch a tax preparation utility office in 2013, and in this regard Alpha II Omega Tax Services will be dealing with multiple clients since its being the first time Alpha II Omega Tax Services is planning to market itself at full exposure. Alpha II Omega Tax Services is currently offering services home based with limited number of clients, however a five year career objectives must be concrete, and Alpha II Omega Tax Services should focus on providing all related services in tax preparation including serving consumers with tax delivery services and electronic input. Alpha II Omega Tax Services should also focus to develop expertise in all range of applications that are used. The period of recruitment, training and developing expertise in tax software should not last more than two years. With the application of the tax software, the Alpha II Omega Tax Services can offer automated federal income tax compilation, state income tax, and personal tax compilation services. Alpha II Omega Tax Services regulate focus on developing relations with a range of economic organizations like Santa Barbara Bank & Trust, N.A and HSBC Taxpayer to offer many of the economic services, like Refund Anticipation Loans etc. Since tax preparation alone is a seasonal venture, therefore it should be established with some other service as well. So in five years a medium size profitable tax preparer company with other services can be established. 2. Career Management and Effective planning At present the goals identified in career objectives

Should Greece leave the European Union, or the Eurozone Essay

Should Greece leave the European Union, or the Eurozone - Essay Example In the 1930s, Adolf Hitler wanted to conquer the whole of Europe. In all these cases, the goal was to control and dominate Europe. For many centuries, wars were fought in Europe for religious and political reasons but with no positive results. After the World War II ended, it became clear that war and violence cannot create a unified Europe. By the end of the war in 1945, there was destruction depicted in all the European cities. Many people lost their homes and families. Production and trade were also crippled as factories were destroyed. Many bridges and railroads were also destroyed by bombings. Many Europeans who lost their homes and means of income were devastated as they became helpless and did not know how to rebuild their lives. It became apparent that the need was to adopt an entirely new kind of strategy and concept to recreate the nation, and guide the Europeans to bring their lives back on normal track. For this, it was required that the European people make a peaceful co mmunity by working together to rebuild their nation. The traditional concepts of capturing and controlling Europe because of rivalries had to be eliminated and had to be replaced by a â€Å"new spirit of cooperation.† This new philosophy of cooperation was remarkably followed in the post WWII era. The two instances were the Marshall Plan and the Berlin Airlift, and these were examples of how the allied nations helped the defeated nations of WWII. This was the beginning of a new phase in the history of Europe, and paved the way for a peaceful unification of Europe. During the WWII, smaller countries like Netherlands and Belgium entered into economical and trade agreements; the idea was that economical unification of smaller countries will make them competitive rivals of larger countries. This concept was already established in 1921 by the governments of Luxemburg and Belgium. In 1948, the Benelux Customs Union was formed which â€Å"enabled the free movement of goods, workers , services, and capital between the countries.† In 1952, six European countries began the phase of forming the European Union (EU). The Benelux treaty was signed in the year 1958 which formally provided free trade facilities to the Benelux countries (Introduction to the European Union, n.d., p.2). This paper focuses on Greece joining the EU in 1981, the economic crisis faced by the country and in the final part it has been discussed whether Greece should or should not continue to remain as an EU member country. Decision-making in the European Commission EU has a standard process of making decisions which is termed as joint decision. This means â€Å"the European Parliament has to approve EU legislation together with the Council based on a proposal from the Commission.† (Decision-making in the European Commission, n.d.) There are three major institutions which participate in decision making process of EU. The first one is the European Commission which looks after the int erests of EU and makes decisions that are in favour of the interests. It also has the responsibility to formulate proposals for any new laws to be established in Europe. It has the additional duty of ensuring that the EU policies are efficiently implemented and also manages the spending of EU funds. The second institution is the Council of the European Union where the ministers representing each EU country assemble to generate new laws and implement policies. It also approves the annual budget of EU and has signing authority on any agreements between and other countries. The third and final institution is the European Parliament which is a body of members elected by citizens of each EU country which it is a representative body of the countries’ common people. The European Parlia

Economics (South Korea) + Admin & Laws in India, China & South Korea Essay

Economics (South Korea) + Admin & Laws in India, China & South Korea - Essay Example This volatile growth rate is mainly due the economic recession of 2008 which affected the economy of the country significantly. The inflation rate for the country has remained pretty much stable as compared to the GDP rate. Inflation rate was 3 percent in 2010 and increased to 4 percent in 2011. The inflation rate, however, went down to 2.2 percent in 2012 (Euromonitor, 2013). This decrease in inflation rate is due to the slowing exports of the country which is also affecting the overall growth of the economy (Kim, 2012). The unemployment rate of South Korea has been close to 3 percent in the few years. Unemployment in 2011 was 3.3 percent which lowered to 3.2 percent in 2012. In 2013 unemployment rate has been reported as 3 percent (Prasad, 2013). The government has recently announced an increase in minimum wage for all employees in the country. The minimum wage in South Korea now equals to about $958 monthly for 8 hours daily (GMA News, 2013). The amount in the local currency amounts to 1,015,740 won (GMA News, 2013). South Korea has a very strong export base and, therefore, the country usually almost always enjoys a trade surplus. An exception to this was in 2012 when the country reported a trade deficit. In 2013 the country announced trade surplus of just over $2 billion which shows the strength of country’s exports (Trading Economics Website, 2013). The poverty rate of South Korea is about 7 percent (Ji-Sook, 2012). A family of four people having a family income of less than $1217 a month is considered poor by the government (2012). The poverty rate for elderly people is higher in the country compared to the overall poverty rate of South Korea. Public debt of South Korea is lower compared to other developed countries. The public debt of the country is around 34. 7% of the country’s GDP (Ernst & Young, 2012). This was even lower before the economic recession of 2008. Low public debt is a good sign for the country. The interest rate of

The Power of Possessions Essay Example for Free

The Power of Possessions Essay Possessions hold on to the memories from the past reflecting the emotion a person holds on to. Holding onto possessions allows people to reminisce the memories from their past whether uplifting or heartbreaking, these possessions hold onto the stories we do not want to forget. In the poem â€Å"Mrs. Caldera’s House of Things†, Mrs. Caldera keeps hold of so many items of her past including pencil tips, plastic hummingbirds, tineless forks, milk bottles and many more. Mrs. Caldera loves thinking about her childhood and having all of the items helps remind her of all her childhood memories. It is obvious that all these items bring great joy and happiness to her especially at the end of the poem when Mrs. Caldera is baking cookies and the author says, â€Å"She is humming a song from childhood,/ Her arms are heavy and strong / They have held babies, a husband,†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (7.25-27). In those lines, it is shown that Mrs. Caldera is happy with the life she lives and thinking about her past gives her great joy. In the excerpt from â€Å"Memoria ex Machina† the author feels great emotions from a silver Seiko watch and a 1973 Datsun 1200, both items which belonged to his father. Thinking back on the memories from his dad’s items brings him great fear. It is evident that he is fearful of these items especially the watch when he says,† a pleasant hum long since obliterated by hordes of digital beeps†. In those lines, the author says how the watch was soothing to him with its pleasant hums but now it is terrifying to see it. Both the watch and the car which he has such fond memories of, now fill him with fear and despair as if he wishes he could take back the things he did. In both the poem and the excerpt it is shown that the possessions a person holds on to contains the memories from the past. They remind people of important memories in their life no matter how happy or depressing they are. With possessions, people can always remember the memories they want.

Living in Texas vs Louisiana Essay Example for Free

Living in Texas vs Louisiana Essay Texas is the second most populous and the second-largest of the 50 states in the United States of America, and the largest state in the 48 contiguous United States (Wikipedia, Texas, 2013). Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America and is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States ((Wikipedia, Louisiana, 2013). Texas and Louisiana are two different areas in the United States to live that have many diverse ways of living. Between both states, Texas is easier to live in than Louisiana because of the differences in culture, economy, and climate. The name Texas is based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or alliesand was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in East Texas (Wikipedia, Etymology, 2013). Texas has many variations of cultures that reside within the state and these culture’s range from caucasian (white), african american (black), and spanish american (hispanic). The state also has other forms of cultures too but the ones I named are the main ethnicity that you see on a daily basis. Texas has many assortments of cultures which makes the state a equal opportunity for many cultures to advance in numerous areas of employment. The cultures in Texas always interacted with one another in different areas of living and would live in the same areas has another race and would become friends. They would go to school together and enjoy it, grocery shop at the same stores with no problems, and get gas at the same gas stations as everyone else. The races in Texas might have their differences between one another but would still except the fact that everyone has to do the same daily activities as anyone else. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643–1715. Rene-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, and named it La Louisiane, meaning Land of Louis (Wikipedia, Toponym, 2013). Louisiana is mainly made up of caucasian’s and african american’s and the races do not mix very well. The way that I remember it when I live in Tallulah, Louisiana was that their was a railroad track that divided the small town into two different sections. The black’s lived on one side of the railroad tracks and the whites lived on the other side. There is only a few ways that the races interacted with one another and they were by achieving the same education from the same small town schools, grocery shopping at the only grocery store in the town, and at the few gas stations that were by the main highway. The ways the cultures had to interact with one another were not by choice but by having to so they could live their life’s and meet their ways of living in society. You would never see the cultures become friends and if they did they only showed it in the areas that they were allowed to be around each other in the town and that would consist of the places I named that you would see the two cultures together but not by choice. I was friends with everyone and did not understand why this small town lived the way that it did. I would love to go back to that town today to see if the ways of living has changed at all or if it stayed the same. I was only in fourth and fifth grade when I lived there. Texas’s large population, abundance of natural resources, thriving cities and leading centers of higher education have contributed to a large and diverse economy. Since oil was discovered, the states economy has reflected the state of the petroleum industry. In 2010, Site Selection Magazine ranked Texas as the most business-friendly state in the nation, in part because of the states three-billion-dollar Texas Enterprise Fund. Texas has the joint-highest number of Fortune 500 company headquarters in the United States, along with California. As of 2010, Texas had a gross state product (GSP) of $1. 207 trillion, is the second highest in the U.  S. , and is the fourth-largest of any country subdivision globally. As of April 2012, the states unemployment rate is only at 6. 5% (Wikipedia, Economy of Texas, 2013). Texas’s economy has went through the recession just like any other state but has started to rise out of the recession because of the land of oil industry that has hit its highest point since when I lasted lived in the state. The state of Texas I think is the busiest of many states because of its high demand of employment for the oil industry. The jobs are anywhere from secretary employment to a derrick man on the rig itself drilling the oil out of the ground. Every position has its own way of being very important. I miss living in this state because of how big the state is and the different areas of employment that is available. Texas does hit rock bottom but will always find a way out to rise above other states. Louisiana’s state principal is agricultural products which include seafood, cotton, soybeans, cattle, sugarcane, poultry and eggs, dairy products, and rice. The seafood industry is its biggest producer of crawfish in the world, supplying approximately 90% and directly supports an estimated 16,000 jobs. Louisiana industry generates chemical products, petroleum and coal products, processed foods and transportation equipment, and paper products. Tourism is an important element in the economy, especially in the New Orleans area. The total gross state product in 2010 for Louisiana was US $213. 6 billion, placing it 24th in the nation. Its per capita personal income is $30,952, ranking 41st in the United States. As of January 2010, the states unemployment rate was 7. 4% and an African American is three times as likely as a white person to be unemployed in Louisiana (Wikipedia, Economy, 2013). In Louisiana the Caucasian race has a higher play in job placement before African Americans which I do not think is right but every state has its differences. The white race runs most of the environment in Louisiana but the black’s make up the other part that is left to run. When you walk into different stores in Louisiana most of them are owned by Caucasians but blacks may be a part of the team by being an employee. If you do see a black own a place in Louisiana it is only because he fought and showed his abilities to become somebody. Seafood is a way to isolated Louisiana from any other state and it makes a lot of income from producing there different seafood products throughout the United States but the seafood industry does not pay as high as the oil field industry does in Texas. The large size of Texas and its location at the intersection of multiple climate zones gives the state highly variable weather. The Panhandle of the state has colder winters than North Texas, while the Gulf Coast has mild winters. Texas has wide variations in precipitation patterns (Wikipedia, Climate of Texas, 2013). The city I lived in was San Antonio, the summers were hot and the winters were mild. The rainy season is between the months of January and February. I loved the summers of Southern Texas because they are longer than the winters and are able to wear light clothing. The winters sometimes would get really cold but for the most part it was mild and easy to convert over to the climate change. In San Antonio it has only snowed a few times and since I have been born I only remember once when it snowed and it only stayed for a couple of hours because the climate in Southern Texas is warmer than other states. Louisiana has a humid subtropical climate, perhaps the most classic example of a humid subtropical climate of all the South-central states. It has long, hot, humid summers and short, mild winters (Wikipedia, Climate, 2013). The summers and winters are similar in ways to Texas but the winters could be very cold and it does snow in Louisiana and the temperatures in the winter are a lot colder than in Texas. I remember when my mom drove in the snow in Louisiana but I cannot recall a time when she has ever driven in the snow in Texas where we lived. It does snow in Texas but in the northern part by the Panhandle.

Should Nurses Be Allowed to Diagnose Patients?

Should Nurses Be Allowed to Diagnose Patients? Nowadays, the more controversial is the question as whether nurses should be allowed to diagnose patients? This issue is highly significant because nurses are equally responsible for patient care as do doctors and their knowledge can contribute towards appropriate diagnosis. However, Croasdale (2008) claimed that nurses have limited diagnosing skills. Here the essential point on which I differ is that, today nurses are more knowledgeable and competent health care professionals. Thats why they have potentials to diagnose patients. Thus, I propose that as nurses possess great potentials so they should be allowed to diagnose patients. Opponents of my view argued that nurses are considered subordinate to doctors. Sullivan Decker (2008) stated that Relationship of physician and nurse has been that of superior and subordinate. This in turn means that, nurses are supposed to adhere to doctors order. This prestige comes from the point that only doctors are allowed to diagnose. Godlee (2008) contends that, diagnosis is almost the only skill that defines doctor. Additionally, history taking and assessment in logical fashion is the key principle to make pertinent diagnosis. For which doctors are trained and knowledgeable. Furthermore, their education is more advanced than nurses, which help them to achieve this task. Thus, it can be affirm that nurses are responsible for caring patients while doctors cure them. Whereas, I strongly believe that, nurses are not subordinate to doctor. In fact, both are independent professionals who collaborate to achieve similar goals. As Murphy (2004) clearly pointed out that nursing is an independent profession with a unique body of knowledge and not simply a subcategory of medicine. In reality, nurses in their everyday practice also implement a logical process for history taking and assessment which ultimately guides diagnosis. For example, since the day nurses step in this profession, they are practicing history taking, interviewing and assessment skills. Moreover, nursing education has also expanded now and advance concepts are part of their curriculum. Today, nurses are also actively participating in researches to make their practice evidence based. Furthermore, the circle of nursing education does not complete at diploma or baccalaureate level while, career in nursing is flourishing day by day and nurses are moving ahead towards specialization. Therefore, on one hand, care is the core component of nursing. While on the other hand, it provides them the means to cure as well. Fox (2010) is the supporter of my opinion who asserted that Nurses can handle much of th e strain that healthcare reform will place on doctors and should be given the authority to take on more medical duties It is generally accepted that, people are more satisfied with doctors. This is because of the worldwide recognition associated with this profession. Doctors are the fundamental provider of health care. Moreover, it has been observed that in our society people consider doctors as superior to them. And in case of illness they immediately rush to doctor. Likewise, during my experience at emergency department, I have seen that as soon as patients reach, they want doctor to see them first. And many of them seemed satisfied after that. This was the reason, allowing nurses to triage patients was questionable. Hence, it is true to say that patients trust doctors and reveal more history to them comparatively to nurses. However, relating to these arguments is the critique that patients are more satisfied with nurses. Yet, there is no denying that doctors are recognized worldwide but, the point that profession of nursing is also globally renowned cannot be overlooked. People consider nurses as core member of health care team. As Laurence (2004) supported that Nurses are more popular than doctors as frontline providers of medical care. Besides that, nurses stay with patients for a longer period of time. Hence, patients trust and build rapport with them. Payne (2009) explains that Nursing was one of the few professions to gain an increase in public trustà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Doctors saw a drop of 4% in public confidence in the last two years. This clearly shows that, patients trust nurses more than doctors. This allows patients to disclose even those details to nurses which they hesitate to communicate to doctors in short meeting. Thus, it provides nurses an opportunity to identify patients concerns and make appropriate diagnosis. As far as triage nursing is concerned, initially it was questionable but once implemented, it became successful than the former. This example clearly illustrates that nurses with their capabilities can satisfy patients. Hence, nurses can become successf ul if they are allowed to diagnose. Cernik Ferns (2006) claimed that doctors are the ultimate decision makers and patients are their legal responsibility. According to this argument, the responsibility to diagnose comes under doctors mandate because they are licensure for that. Therefore, they are held legally responsible as any error or an act of negligence can lead to legal implications for them. Nurses, so this argument goes, are also legally responsible and answerable for their actions in court of law. For instance, if the patient dies due to wrong diagnose, so it is not only a doctor but the organization is sued and in such circumstances, doctors and nurses both are liable. Moreover, doctors are licensure to diagnose but the same is true for nurses in particular that, in UK and USA, there are nurse practitioners who are allowed to diagnose independently and treat patients. Considering the above arguments, is the point that competent nurses by virtue of an essential member of health care team should be allowed to diagnose patients. As, they are regarded as the backbone of health care industry their knowledge can benefit patient to a greater extent. Nurses, being good decision maker based on their knowledge and experience as well as legally responsible health care professionals can bring positive outcome in health care. In my opinion, if nurses are prohibited to diagnose, then their capabilities would get suppressed. As well as, this can predispose to increase chances of misdiagnoses and eventually errors will arise. Hence, society at large can benefit if the nurses are empowered for that. Word count: 1005

As I Lay Dying Essay: The Characters -- As I Lay Dying Essays

The Characters in As I Lay Dying The poet's voice need not merely be the record of man, it can be one of the props, the pillars to help him endure and prevail. (excerpt-Faulkner's Nobel Prize acceptance speech)   Ã‚  Ã‚   Analyzing character in a Faulkner novel is like trying to reach the bottom of a bottomless pit because Faulkner's characters often lack ration, speak in telegraphed stream-of-consciousness, and rarely if ever lend themselves to ready analysis.   This is particularly true in As I Lay Dying, a novel of a fragmented and dysfunctional family told through fragmented chapters.   Each character reveals their perspective in different chapters, but the perspectives are true to life in that though they all reveal information about the Bundren family and their struggles to exist they are all limited by the perspective of the character providing the revelations.   The story centers on the death of the mother of the Bundren clan, Addie, whose imminent death creates fragmentation and chaos in the Bundren family because Anse, Addie's husband, has promised to travel to Jefferson to bury her with her family.   Floods, fires, injuries and poor decisions mar the journey, but the fa mily endures and Anse brings home a new Mrs. Bundren.   However, Anse, often read as the most selfish Bundren is the only one prepared to go on with life and accept Addie's death.      Others in the family are not so ready to accept the displacement of their mother so readily.   Among them, Vardaman and Dewey Dell are often portrayed as the least individualized characters in the Bundren family.   Someone once suggests he is a "frightened, perhaps deranged child" and she is a "female vegetable."   These suggestions might be a bit extreme, but defin... ...ner   57).   Vardaman, on the other hand, is even younger than Dewey Dell and seems less able to cope with reality.   However, he does see Darl set fire to the Gillespie's barn and trusts Dewey Dell enough to reveal this to her.   She tells him never to repeat it.   However, Vardaman will be disappointed in the journey as will Dewey Dell.   Only Anse gets what he wants.   Vardaman's train is not in the store window and Dewey Dell is tricked by another man, the pharmacist, into providing sexual favors.   Both are victims of their genetics and their environment, which, at their age, does leave them the least individualized characters in the novel.      WORKS   CITED          Faulkner, W.   As I Lay Dying.   Vintage Books, New York, 1957.       2                                                      

Kurt vonnegut :: essays research papers

Kurt Vonnegut Served as a sensitive cell in the organism of American Society during the 1960's. His work alerted the public about the absurdity of modern warfare and an increasingly mechanized and impersonal society in which humans were essentially worthless and degenerated. The satirical tone and sardonic humor allowed people to read his works and laugh at their own misfortune. Vonnegut was born on November 11, 1922, in Indianapolis, where he was reared. His father was an architect, as his grandfather had been. Though the family's fortune was eroded during the Depression-his father went without an architectural commission from 1929 to 1940-they were well-to-do. Kurt attended Shortridge High School, where he was the editor of the nations oldest daily high school paper, the Echo. (((high school quote))) Vonnegut was expected to become a scientist, and when he went to Cornell in 1940, he chose, at the urging of his father, to major in chemistry. (((college quote))) "Chemistry was everything then," he said. "It was a magic word in the thirties. The Germans, of course, had chemistry, and they were going to take apart the universe and put it together again. At Cornell, he was the managing editor and columnist for its daily paper, the Sun. Among interned as a prisoner of war in Dresden, Germany. It was here that he experienced what would later become the basis for one of his best-selling novels, Slaughterhouse-Five. "(Dresden) was the first fancy city I'd ever seen. Then a siren went off-it was February 13, 1945-and we went down two stories under the pavement into a big meat locker. It was cool there, with (animal) cadavers hanging all around. When we came up the city was gone." This experience, or rather, disaster, was the Allied firebombing of Dresden in w hich over 130,000 people, mostly citizens, died for no apparent reason. Despite the horror of the incident, he maintains that the experience did not change his way of thinking, but rather gave him another viewpoint from which to observe the absurdity and cruelty of the human race. "The importance of Dresden in my life has been considerably exaggerated because my book about it became a best seller." (p. 94 CWV) Vonnegut returned to the United States determined tp be a writer, and to deal with the experience of Dresden, though it was nearly 25 years before he was able to do so.

Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill’s The Astrakhan Cloak Essay -- Astrakhan Cloak

Nuala NÃ ­ Dhomhnaill’s The Astrakhan Cloak The Astrakhan Cloak, published in 1992, is a collection of poems by Nuala NÃ ­ Dhomhnaill. Several aspects of the book deserve notice from the reader, including structural and thematic elements that work to develop an overall sense of mystery, wonder, and loss. A significant theme of the poems in the collection is the dichotomy of the supernatural and civilized worlds, and the sense that there are forces in the world just beyond our perception and understanding. In general the poems presented are short, but the final inclusion is a longer poem divided into sections, each somewhat able stand on its own. Read as a whole the final poem underscores the central themes presented in the book. NÃ ­ Dhomhnaill wrote the collection in Irish, but translations are provided on the facing pages. It is important to consider why the book was published in both languages. At the simplest level, the poet wanted people to read her work, and the market for poetry in English is larger than that in Irish. However, there are other considerations to keep in mind. First, the decision to print poems in both Irish and English brings to the mind of the reader some of the mystery inherent in other languages, especially the supernatural connotations of Celtic language. Viewing the poems in Irish reinforces the idea that some things are outside the realm of human understanding. Reading a translation is not the same as reading an original work; the reader cannot help but wonder what meaning the foreign words might carry that is lost in translation. That constant reminder throughout the collection enhances the sense of there being something just beyond perception that is beautiful and mysterious. Many of the poem... ...section of The Voyage, Two Men, tells of an encounter with the "Isle of Enchantment", Hy-Breasil. When the sailors in the poem encounter the island, they are caught up in "the relative merits of coal or clod", symbolizing the obsession with the everyday world, while "the island itself was covered by a blanket of cloud/and completely disappeared from view." (103) Finally, the island, and all the supernatural wonder it represents is lost, outside the reach of humanity. Â   Works Cited Ellmann, Richard and O'Clair, Robert, ed. The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry, Second Edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1988. NÃ ­ Dhomhnaill, Nuala. The Astrakhan Cloak. Trans. Paul Muldoon. Loughcrew: The Gallery Press, 1992 "astrakhan." Encyclopedia Britanicca Online Dictionary [Accessed 11 November 2004].

Operational Plan Essay

Offices Assistant Operational Plan Goal Increase the sales in each store by 10% by June 2013 Objectives: a) include graphic design services b) Acquisition of additional printer, photocopier and delivery van. c) Reorganize of fixtures and fitting within the store to make space for the equipment d) Multi-skill current retail product staff to include service knowledge. e) Increase in human resource requirements. Strategy In order to increase the sales, the company will need to employee 10 more people with costumer service background, and provide the correct training of the products and services. Consultation Stakeholder Role in the Problem Consultation Method Senior Management Team Decision Maker feedback session email communications newsletters Store Manager Develop an operational plan Meetings group meetings interviews Employees Implementers of the plan Focus groups Brainstorming sessions Feedback sessions. Suppliers Supply equipment Email communication Newsletters Customers Email communication Newsletters Media Involved in the advertisement ex Email communication Newsletters Actions: In order to complete the organization goal and objectives the following are the action that should be taken: a) Include a graphic designer The Marketing department need to advertise the position of graphic designer. Responsible: Manager of the area Timeframe: 18 Oct 2013 to 18 of November 2013 Budget: 500 b) Acquisition of additional printer, photocopier and delivery van To increase the sales, The Company will need to provide additional equipment. Responsible: Store Manager Time frame: 20 Oct 2013 to 18 of November 2013 Budget: 2500 c) Make space for the new equipment Reorganize of fixtures and fitting within the store to make space for the equipment. Responsible: Store Manager Time frame: 15 Oct 2013 to 20 November 2013 Budget: 1000 d) Training Multi-skill current retail product staff to include service knowledge. Responsible: Store Manager and team members Time frame: 18November to 30 November 2013 Budget: 2000 e) Recruitment 10 more people have to be hired. Responsible: Store managers and Manager of specific Areas. Time frame: 20 Oct to 18 November 2013 Contingence plan If the strategy of increasing the sales 10% by next year doesn’t work after the high season(November to January). We will need to focus more in how to advertise more the products and services provided. Because we already have the trained people to continue to project. The Marketing department need to focus in a strategy to get more costumers to increase the sales. Outcome: To increase the sales by 10% by next year. The company need to invest in the project $6000. That include a graphic design services, acquisition and organization of new equipment. Recruitment and training. Approval Name Position Date Sing Carolina Prieto Senior Management Carolina Prieto David Garcia Store Manger David Garcia

The Flowering Response of the Rice Plant to Photoperiod

The Flowering Response of the Rice Plant to Photoperiod A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE FOURTH EDITION 1985 Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines Mail Address: P. O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines THE INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE First printing 1969 Partially revised 1972 Revised 1976 Revised 1985 The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established in 1960 by the Ford and Rockfeller Foundations with the help and approval of the Government of the Philippines. Today IRRI is one of the 13 nonprofit international research and training centers supported by the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR is sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The CGIAR consists of 50 donor countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. IRRI receives support, through the CGIAR, from a number of donors including: the Asian Development Bank, the European Economic Community, the Ford Foundation, the International Development Research Centre, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the OPEC Special Fund, the Rockefeller Foundation, the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank, and the international aid agencies of the following governments: Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and United States. The responsibility for this publication rests with the International Rice Research Institute. Copyright @ International Rice Research Institute 1986 All rights reserved. Except for quotations of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission of IRRI. This permission will not be unreasonably withheld for use for noncommercial purposes. IRRI does not require payment for the noncommercial use of its published works, and hopes that this copyright declaration will not diminish the bona fide use of its research findings in agricultural research and development. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IRRI concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. ISBN 971-104-151-0 CONTENTS Foreword Introduction 1 Rice as a Short-day Plant 1 Growth Phases 2 Basic Vegetative Phase 4 Photoperiod-Sensitive Phase 5 Photoinductive Cycles 7 Reception of the Photoperiodic Stimulus and Translocation 9 Light Intensity and Quality 9 Interruption of the Dark Period 11 Days from Photoinductive Treatment to Flowering 12 Biochemical Changes During Photoinduction 12 Effect of Temperature on the Flowering Response to Photoperiod 13 Measurements and Methods of Testing Photoperiod Sensitivity 14 Date-of-Planting Experiments 15 Ecology and Photoperiodism 17 Terminology Used in Describing Photoperiod Sensitivity 20 Inheritance of Vegetative Growth Duration 23 Problems in the Study of the Rice Plant? fs Photoperiodism 25 Summary 26 Appendix 28 Bibliography 38 Foreword This review, first published in 1969, has been an important reference in understanding the rice plant. It has had a small but continuing demand. Many new reports on the flowering response of the rice plant have been published since the first edition. More than 100 publications were included in the third edition; this edition includes another 103 publications. For ease of reading, numbers have been used to cite the references. This review was prepared with the cooperation of the IRRI Library Staff and the technical assistance of Mr. Romeo M. Visperas, and edited by Ms. Emerita P. Cervantes. M. S. Swaminathan Director General Introduction Photoperiod influences several aspects of plant growth. Some of its effects on rices have been reviewed by Best (24), Gwinner (111), Katayama (192), Morinaga (316), Sircar (439), and Wagenaar (534). This review is primarily concerned with the effect of photoperiod on the flowering of the rice plant. It includes more than 500 papers on the photoperiodism of rice, most of which are available at the International Rice Research Institute library. Several contributions in Japanese have been translated into English and also are available at the International Rice Research Institute library. A bibliography is given at the end of this review; not all papers listed were cited in this review but were nevertheless included as future references for interested workers. Rice as a short-day plant Rice is sensitive to photoperiod . long-day treatments can prevent or considerably delay its flowering. Rice cultivars exhibit a wide range of variation in their degree of sensitivity to photoperiod (87, 254, 319, 357, 531, 563). Figure 1 shows these variations, ranging from the very sensitive to the nearly insensitive. 1. Response curves of three representative types of rice cultivars. 2 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Most of the wild species of Oryza and many of the primitive cultivated rices ( O. sativa L. ) are photoperiod sensitive and may be classified as short-day plants. Most papers agree on such a classification, and therefore in this review, rice will be considered as a short-day plant. It also will be classified into photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiod-insensitive types, the latter showing a low response or a slight delay in flowering with an increase in photoperiod. The present tendency is to select photoperiod-insensitive cultivars so that most of the cultivated rices may eventually become photoperiod-insensitive ones. These improved, early maturing cultivars may fit into the multiple cropping system characteristic of progressive agriculture. There have been reports of cultivars whose flowering is delayed by short-day treatments and hence are considered long-day plants (1, 98, 99, 239, 254, 276, 277, 279, 283, 284, 287, 291, 303, 398,443,444, 488). Heenati, for instance, is often referred to in the literature as a long-day plant (1). Short photoperiods have delayed its flowering by 10 d, but this delay is relatively short and may be the result of nonphotoperiodic factors, such as low light intensity or relatively high temperature. The delay caused by short-day treatments ranged from 7 to 12 d in the Charnock and Panbira cultivars using an 8-h photoperiod (443), about 9 d in B. 76 (303), and 13 d in T. N. 32 and T. A. 64 (287). Many of the reported long-day and intermediate cultivars were found to be short-day cultivars in subsequent testing (522). The apparent long-day reaction of Heenati resulted from using photoperiods shorter than the optimum, which delayed flowering (34). Some rices may have been classified as long-day plants because inadequate facilities were used in testing the photoperiod reaction. The range of photoperiods used has been limited, usually involving only two treatments. In some instances, the classification was based on field reaction to different planting dates (98). Short-day-treated plants were often compared with plants grown under natural day lengths (291, 303, 304). The difference and changes in temperature and the photoperiods used have made it difficult to interpret the data intelligently. As will be discussed later, many photoperiod response curves show that photoperiods longer or shorter than the optimum delay the flowering of photoperiod-sensitive cultivars (34, 513). Photoperiod response differs markedly among rices; this also explains the diversity of the results reported on the photoperiodism of the rice plant (see Appendix). However, more than 400 cultivars have been critically tested at IRRI (l59, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170), and not one so far has shown a long-day response. Growth phases The growth of the rice plant can be divided into three stages: 1) the vegetative growth phase, from germination to panicle initiation; 2) the reproductive phase, from panicle initiation to flowering; and 3) the ripening phase, from flowering to full development of grain. In the tropics, the reproductive phase is about 35 d while the ripening phase ranges from 30 to 35 d. Both phases are relatively constant, although low temperatures have been known to prolong them and high The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 3 temperatures to shorten them. The ripening phase may be prolonged to as much as 60 d. However, it is the vegetative growth phase whose duration generally varies greatly and which largely determines the growth duration of a cultivar, especially in the tropics. The vegetative growth phase can be further divided into the basic vegetative phase (BVP) and the photoperiod-sensitive phase (PSP). The BVP refers to the juvenile growth stage of the plant, which is not affected by photoperiod. It is only after the BVP has been completed that the plant is able to show its response to the photoperiodic stimulus for flowering . this is the PSP of the plant. Figure 2 shows the growth phases and the typical response of a photoperiodsensitive rice and a photoperiod-insensitive rice. Based on the BVP and PSP, varietal response to photoperiod can be classified into four types as shown in Figure 3 (105, 526). 2. Growth phases and typical responses of a photoperiod-sensitive rice and a photoperiod-insensitive rice. BVP = basic vegetative phase, PSP = photoperiod-sensitive phase. 3. Four types of varietal response to photoperiod. BVP = basic vegetative phase, PSP = photoperiodsensitive phase. 4 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod The BVP and PSP are two separable growth phases controlled by different genes. Although some tropical cultivars may be classified as the D type having both long BVP and long PSP, most were probably eliminated during domestication since they would have had an unusually long growth period and could be planted only within a narrow range of dates. Such cultivars were found in Bangladesh and are known as Rayadas (105). The four types shown in Figure 3 were classified under one temperature condition. Norin 20 (Type A) has a short BVP. When grown in the tropics, however, it has a much shorter BVP than when grown in the temperate areas (Fig. 1). In classifying cultivars based on BVP, most of those from the low latitudes were found to have long BVP? fs (531, 532). Basic vegetative phase At the early growth stages, the rice plant is photoperiod insensitive so that the photoinductive treatments are usually started when the plants are 10-63 d old (13, 90, 142, 175, 186, 213, 230, 232, 273, 304, 316, 401, 512, 531). Because of this insensitivity to photoperiod, the early growth stage has been termed the basic vegetative phase; it is also referred to as the juvenile growth stage of the insensitive phase of the plant. Suenaga recognized the BVP as early as 1936. He measured it by taking the duration of the vegetative growth phase at optimum day length. The BVP also has been measured by subtracting 35 d from the growth duration (sowing to flowering) of plants grown at the optimum photoperiod (526). This assumes that the period from panicle initiation to flowering is about 35 d. Anema (13) modified the determination of the BVP by subtracting 35 d and the minimum number of photoinductive cycles needed for panicle initiation from the heading date. The resulting BVP values are smaller but this complex method would mean determining the minimum number of photoinductive cycles needed for each cultivar. The range of BVP reported in the literature has varied from 10 to 85 d (105, 175, 266, 273, 326, 381, 383, 401, 407, 445, 512). In an F 2 population, BVP? fs of more than 100 d were reported (249), but a BVP of this length has not been found in conventional rice cultivars. It is possible that such characters are eliminated during cultivar selection. The appendix shows the range of the BVP of the cultivars tested at IRRI. The indica cultivars generally have longer BVP (583). Other workers have reported or measured BVP in terms of leaf number (93, 215, 340, 413, 551, 575). The minimum number of leaves can be less than five. The need for determining the BVP of a rice cultivar before using it as an experimental plant material is obvious but is frequently overlooked especially in the study of the inheritance of photoperiod sensitivity. Several experiments showed that short-day treatments of seedlings accelerated heading (393, 401, 437, 438, 445) or delayed it (16, 273, 284, 287, 296, 426, 443, 447, 551). The results indicate the possible effect of photoperiod while the plant is in its early growth stage and the possible existence of a very short BVP. On the other hand, long-day treatments of seedlings have been reported to induce earliness in flowering (418, 427). These varied and conflicting results may have been caused by nonspecific factors. A good example is seedling vigor, which is The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 5 known to affect the flowering date, especially in the weakly photoperiod-sensitive cultivars. The degree of sensitivity of rice plants has been reported to increase with age (142, 190, 195, 202, 205, 347, 512). The increase in leaf area accompanying advancement in age does not explain this increase in sensitivity (413). An increase in sensitivity with age up to 28 d and then a decrease in sensitivity with older plants (35- to 42-d-old plants) has been reported (296). The delay probably resulted from the setback from delayed transplanting and not from plant age because the plants were already 63 d old when transplanted, with some already flowering. The optimum age of responsiveness is probably the result of growthlimiting factors, such as space and nutrients and delayed transplanting. Katayama (202) indicated that the BVP, or aging effect, probably resulted from small leaf area and (or) low metabolic activity and (or) lack of a specific metabolic pattern in young plants. The substance causing response to short-day conditions is produced in too small a quantity to affect morphogenesis at the growing point, but increases gradually with increasing age. Studying this aspect, Suge (460) found that the growth inhibitors in the plant were greatly reduced as the plant grew. However, it is not known whether these inhibitory substances are essentially involved in the sensitivity of the plant to photoperiod. In some instances, the apparent low sensitivity of the younger plants may be a matter of completing the BVP. If the photoinductive cycles were given before the BVP of the plants had been completed, the effective photoinductive cycles would be less and the resulting response of the plants would be smaller. The transition from the BVP to the PSP is not well known; it could be abrupt or it could involve a gradual buildup. Using several cultivars, Best (26) found that the insensitive phase (BVP) changed to the fully sensitive phase (PSP) within a week. The following are possible explanations for the existence of the BVP (26): 1) The first leaves formed are completely insensitive to photoperiod. 2) The first leaves formed have very low sensitivity that they do not reach an adequate level of induction to evoke floral initiation before the more sensitive leaves formed at higher nodes have reached this stage. ) The first leaves formed do not attain the induced stage before the (early) senescence of these leaves. 4) The total leaf area required before the plant can react by floral initiation to the inductive photoperiod is so large that it is reached only at a relatively late stage of plant development. 5) The growing point of the young plant is unable to react to the floral stimulus or the st imulus cannot reach the growing point. Photoperiod-sensitive phase The PSP or the eliminable phase (186) is the growth stage indicative of the rice plant's sensitivity to photoperiod. In photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, the PSP determines the rice plant? fs sensitivity. The PSP of photoperiod-insensitive cultivars ranges from 0 to 30 d while that of sensitive cultivars lasts from 31 d or longer. Under continually long photoperiods, 6 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod some cultivars have been reported to remain vegetative even after 12 yr of growth (234). The PSP is usually determined by subtracting the minimum growth duration from the maximum growth duration of a cultivar (526). Because many cultivars remain vegetative for a long period if grown under long-day conditions, experiments are usually terminated after 200 d and the PSP of the cultivar is given the value of 200+. Besides measuring the PSP, there are many other ways . to be discussed later . of determining a cultivar? fs sensitivity to photoperiod. A rice cultivar? fs response to photoperiod may be measured by the length of the PSP, which in turn is determined by both the critical and optimum photoperiods of the cultivar. Because these two terms have been used interchangeably and in many ways, the following definitions will be adopted herein. Optimum photoperiod is the day length at which the duration from sowing to flowering is at a minimum (34). Critical photoperiod is the longest photoperiod at which the plant will flower or the photoperiod beyond which it cannot flower. Figure 1 shows that BPI-76 has an optimum photoperiod of 10 h and a critical photoperiod of 13 h. Tainan 3 has an optimum photoperiod of 12 h but no critical photoperiod because it flowered under all photoperiods. The critical photoperiod determines whether a cultivar will flower when planted at the usual time at a certain latitude, while the optimum photoperiod determines whether it will flower within a reasonable time if planted during a period with longer days than would normally occur during the growing season. With BPI-76, if the optimum photoperiod is 10 h and the delay under photoperiods longer than 10 h is great, one would expect the flowering of this cultivar to be greatly delayed when planted in the northern latitudes where the photoperiod during the growing season is about 14 h. If the critical photoperiod is 12 h, flowering will occur very late at high latitudes, and if flowering does occur, the crop will not mature in time because frost will kill it. A cultivar with a long optimum photoperiod or no critical photoperiod would have wider adaptability . it could be planted at any latitude and in any season, provided it is not too sensitive to temperature. Optimum photoperiod The optimum photoperiod differs with cultivars although many workers have observed it to be 8-10 h (39, 116, 135, 142, 311, 362, 371, 393, 512). Using intermediate photoperiods of less than and more than 10 h may reveal more important information. But this will require facilities in which a maximum of 15-min difference in photoperiods can be accurately obtained. There are also indications that the optimum photoperiod increases with increase in temperature Njoku (335) did not find any optimum photoperiod in the varieties he studied. The photoperiod he used was as short as 9 h, well below the range of natural day lengths. Cultivars with optimum photoperiods longer than 10 h have also been reported (26, 90, 320, 322, 362, 568). The less sensitivity to photoperiod, the longer is the (394). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 7 ptimum photoperiod (116, 311). However, others found no correlation between the optimum photoperiod and the photoperiod sensitivity of the many cultivars they tested (572). A photoperiod longer or shorter than the optimum has been shown to delay flowering, the delay depending upon the cultivar? fs sensitivity (311, 316, 319, 371, 393, 459, 5 13, 568). The term supraoptimum photoperiod has been used when the photoperiod is shorter than the optimum. Panicle initiation in plants receiving a photoperiod as low as 4 h has been reported (140). No flowering has resulted under a 2-h light period (140). Plants receiving 8-h light and varying dark periods from 16 to 64 h showed inhibited shoot apex conversion (219). This was ascribed to inadequacy of carbon compounds for synthesis of requisite quantity of flowering hormone. The turning point mentioned by Yu and Yao (568) is similar to the optimum photoperiod, but the photoperiod values they reported were larger because these were not the photoperiods at which growth is shortest but the photoperiods at which the first long-day effect is manifested. Critical photoperiod Scripchinsky (417), reviewing the literature on rice, indicated that the rice plants have a ? critical length of day for flowering.? h Later studies showed the presence of a critical photoperiod ranging from 12 to 14 h (175, 209, 244, 354, 478, 490, 500, 553). The critical photoperiods determined under controlled photoperiod rooms were almost the same as the day length from sunrise to sunset at 30 d before flowering under natural conditions (499). The lower the latitude of origin of a cultivar or strain, the shorter is its critical photoperiod (196, 356). The critical period is influenced by temperature (566) and lengthens as the plant becomes older (2 12). The PSP of a cultivar is probably a measure of the combined effect of photoperiod on its optimum photoperiod and critical photoperiod. The shorter the critical photoperiod, the longer is the PSP. Short optimum photoperiod is also associated with long PSP. Photoinductive cycles A photoperiodic cycle that induces the initiation of flowers on plants is called a photoinductive cycle. A 10-h photoperiod alternating with a 14-h dark period is one possible photoinductive cycle of a short-day rice cultivar. The minimum number of photoinductive cycles necessary to initiate the panicle primordium of a rice plant varies from 4 to 24. This required minimum number varies not only with cultivar, but also with the photoperiod being used (13, 21, 26, 142, 195, 292, 338, 344, 408, 449, 500, 527, 529). The number of photoinductive cycles necessary increases with photoperiod length (190, 195, 203, 204, 527). According to Katayama (190), the minimum number increases proportionally with the photoperiod used, although others (527) failed to obtain a proportional increase using a different cultivar. Katayama (190) found that the minimum number was lower in cultivars from higher latitudes than in those from lower latitudes. The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Suge (463) showed that different numbers of photoinductive cycles produced different amounts of floral stimulus. He also found that Gibberellin A3 reduced the minimum number of photoinductive cycles necessary to induce flowering. However, gibberellin alone did not induce flowering under noninductive photoperiods. That a certain number of photoinductiv e cycles is required to induce flowering suggests that the stimulus produced by the treatment is cumulative and that flower induction occurs when the stimulus has reached a certain threshold level (205, 206, 208). Photoinductive cycles interrupted by noninductive cycles can negate to different degrees the effect of the photoinductive cycles (200, 206, 345). There are also indications that emergence of the panicle from the flag leaf sheath is a process separate from panicle initiation. For example, internode elongation, after the panicle has been initiated, proceeds more rapidly at shorter than at longer photoperiods (26, 37, 67, 135, 425, 451, 512, 529), and earliness is further induced if the treatment is prolonged until flowering (33, 438, 498). It is possible, however, that panicle initiation and exsertion are separate processes, but certainly the latter proceeds only after the panicle has been formed. The effect of photoperiod on exsertion may be on fuller development of the panicle, hence indirectly affecting elongation of the first internode or exsertion of the panicle. Plants subjected to insufficient photoinductive cycles sometimes form panicles but no emergence occurs (see Table 1) (92, 122, 344, 512, 526). A difference of two photoinductive cycles could make the difference between exsertion or nonexsertion of the panicle. Several workers, however, have reported that photoperiod has only a slight effect on culm elongation and panicle emergence (85, 116, 338, 473); but the cultivars used (85, 338, 473) were generally weakly photoperiodic because the differences between the control and the treated plants were relatively small (16 d at most). In another instance, the treatment was started at a later stage . 20 d before the standard heading time . at which time the plants had received sufficient photoperiodic stimulus for panicle initiation and emergence (1 16). In another experiment, long photoperiods had no effect on the terminal bud that had reached the stage of differentiation of secondary branch primordia (345). Reversals from a reproductive to a vegetative phase have been reported (54, 342). In some instances, however, the panicle is initiated and differentiated but Table 1. Response of 30-d-old BPI-76 seedlings given different numbers of 10-h photoinductive cycles. Days from sowing Days from sowing Cycles (no. ) to panicle to panicle initiation emergence 8 ** 10 47 ** 12 47 88 Continuous 46 66 *No panicle initiation 200 d after treament. **No panicle meregence 200 d after treament * The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 9 does not emerge (526). The unexserted panicle ceases to grow, and instead the terminal growth is dominated by a shoot from a node below the panicle. Such a situation is not a true reversal of the growing point. In more recent histological studies, incomplete short-day treatment changed the bract pri mordium into a leaf primordium, a true reversal of some parts of the growing point (346). Reception of the photoperiodic stimulus and translocation The photoperiodic stimulus may be received by the leaves of the rice plant (24). The leaf sheaths can receive the stimulus as shown by removing the leaf blades and subjecting the plant to photoinductive treatments (26, 142, 481). More photoinductive cycles were needed to induce flowering when the leaf blades were removed (142). Defoliated plants responded to light interruption given during dark periods as well as the intact plants (142). In one cultivar, the culm received the photoperiodid stimulus (26). Evidently, the leaf most receptive to the stimulus is the youngest fully formed leaf (263). The first leaves, up to the sixth leaf, are either insensitive or have low sensitivity to photoperiod (26). It is difficult to study this aspect of leaf sensitivity because grafting experiments with the rice plant are difficult. Removing the leaves at regular intervals after the end of the photoinductive cycles showed that the floral stimulus moves gradually from the leaves to the terminal bud (142, 464). The translocation of the stimulus depends on temperature. It was also reported that the rate of translocation of the stimulus is the same regardless of the number of photoinductive cycles received by the plant (463). The question of stimulus movement from one tiller to another has also attracted the attention of several workers. When a plant was divided and half was kept under a 24-h photoperiod and the other half under an 8-h photoperiod, the half subjected to the short-day treatment flowered while that under long-day treatment remained vegetative (230, 232). The results indicate that the stimulus is not transmitted from one tiller to another. This finding has been substantiated by other workers using different cultivars and methods (263, 408, 521). Manuel and Velasco (263) concluded that the stimulus that induces flowering can be conserved in the stubble and later transferred to the ratoon but not to a neighboring tiller of the same age as the donor. Sasamura (413), however, reported that the floral stimulus goes from the main culm to its tillers. The irregularities observed in photoperiod-sensitive cultivars when planted during the off-season, for example, the high number of nonflowering tillers, have been attributed to the effect of the photoinductive cycles received by the plant and their nontranslocation to the succeeding tillers formed (521). Light intensity and quality The light intensities used to prevent or delay flowering varied from 1 to more than 200 lx. Incandescent, tungsten, as well as fluorescent bulbs have been used (69, 143, 310, 396, 484, 489, 503, 538, 565, 570, 577). The brighter the illumination, the stronger the retarding effect. 10 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Delay in flowering with light intensities varying from 10 to 100 lx and even at 1 lx (310, 484) has been reported (538, 565, 589). Extending the day length using light intensities of less than 200 lx during the first or last 3 h of the 12-h dark period did not prevent flowering (478). In another experiment, 2-h illumination at 15 lx before a 9-h dark period showed some inhibiting effect and 1-h illumination at 500 lx incandescent light before a 9-h dark period inhibited flowering (143). In correlating laboratory studies with field studies, the natural photoperiod used is usually based on the sunrise-to-sunset duration. Such measurements are unsatisfactory in assessing periods of effective light because very low light intensities have been known to effect photoperiod responses in some experiments. Civil twilight in the morning can generally delay flowering but civil twilight in the evening may or may not delay flowering (143, 196, 205, 502). Civil twilight ends when the light intensity is about 4 lx. Twilight, of course, varies with localities and within the year. The critical light that results in delayed flowering is around 5 lx and sometimes 10 lx, depending on variety and other factors (174). Twilight intensity also varies and may be higher in the morning than in the afternoon (Fig. 4). Katayama (196) attributes the greater effectiveness of the morning twilight to higher intensity. Cloudy weather affects twilight duration. Takimoto and Ikeda (478), however, concluded that the photoperiodically effective day length is equal to the astronomical day length (sunrise to sunset) because twilight (less than 200 lx) had little effect on photoperiodic induction in their experiment. Wormer (538) showed that low light intensities for 6 h (10-100 lx) given after a 12-h daylight can delay flowering. Farmers have complained that their rice plants did not flower regularly because of the electric lights installed along their fields (552). One incident has been reported in which the light from a flame of waste natural gas prevented normal 4. Change of light intensity during civil twilight (after Katayama [196]). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 11 flowering in rice. The effect of light was noticeable up to about 270 m from the flare (22). Although light from incandescent bulbs is generally used for photoperiod studies, other colors have been tried in rice. The blue-violet part of the spectrum has been shown to retard flowering (260) as has infrared light (323). The delay in flowering caused by green light is very slight, only 4-5 d later than natural day length (234). Green has, therefore, been used in light traps for the moth. Red light is the most effective in delaying flowering, while blue showed some effect only at high intensities and in the most photoperiod-sensitive cultivars (26, 146, 153, 503). The phytochrome pigment is generally regarded as the system that interacts with photoperiod or with different light qualities, such as red, far-red, and blue. Such pigment has been studied in rice coleoptile by Pjon and Furuya (378, 379). For panicle initiation, rice needs a high light intensity during the light period. The inhibition caused by low-intensity light during the light period can be overcome effectively by exposing the plant to high-intensity light immediately before or after the inductive dark period (140, 145). This phenomenon is similar to that reported in other short-day plants and is evidently a carbohydrate requirement. This requirement would explain why a 2-h light period followed by 22-h dark period did not induce flowering (140). Ikeda (145) reported, however, that plants growing in low-intensity light during the photoinductive period but briefly exposed to high-intensity light before the inductive dark period had floral induction, suggesting that light requirement for floral induction of rice is not entirely concerned with photosynthesis. In the flowering response of the rice cultivars to photoperiod, red light given during the dark period inhibited flowering (136, 146, 148, 411, 442). The effect of red light increased with intensity. Red light, as low as 10 ? EW/cm 2 given for 3 h or 290 ? EWc/cm 2 for 15 min in the middle of the dark period, inhibited flowering (146, 148, 149). Red light was most effective in inhibiting panicle initiation when given in the middle of the dark period (150). With red light, the period of exposure needed to inhibit floral development was shorter than with white light (146). The inhibiting effect of red light has also been shown in experiments involving red and far-red lights. Far-red after red nullifies the delaying effect of red light and promotes flowering (411). Far-red before a 9- or 10-h dark period promotes flowering and this effect can be reversed by red light (146, 149, 152). Far-red enhances flowering whereas blue retards flowering (185). Far-red after the critical dark period can shorten the critical dark period as well as reduce the minimum number of inductive cycles required (145). Interruption of the dark period Sensitive strains of rice respond to light interruption (26, 69, 218, 232, 260, 323, 449, 570, 577). Light given in the middle of the dark period delayed the flowering of the sensitive cultivar Shuan-chiang (570). The light intensity used was 1001x and the duration varied from a flash to as long as 15 min. The degree of delay was greater in the light interruption of a 12-h dark period (12 light and 12 dark) than of a 16-h dark period (8 light and 16 dark) (577). Interrupting the light period with darkness did not accelerate flowering. 12 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod The earlier the interposition of the light during the dark period, the greater was the delay (449). The findings show that the flowering response of the plant is determined by the longest dark period. Days from photoinductive treatment to flowering The literature indicates that the number of days from panicle initiation to flowering is about 35. Many workers have reported that the difference among cultivars is small (7, 407, 511, 551). Others found that the number of days from panicle initiation to flowering ranges from 10 to 241 d (425). It seems obvious, however, that 10 d is too short for the full development of a panicle. Flowering may be delayed by long photoperiods after panicle initiation (176, 524). But if the plants are given photoinductive cycles beyond the minimum requirement, the subsequent photoperiods have very little effect on flowering and elongation (501, 524). Auxin application can nullify the delaying effect of long photoperiods (176). Under natural day length, the number of days from the first-bract differentiation stage to flowering varied from 27 to 46 d, depending upon the cultivar and time of sowing (14, 270). Reports vary on the number of days from the start of the photoinductive treatment to flowering. Misra (285) reported 37 d in 30-, 40-, 50-, 60-, and 70-d-old plants of the cultivar T. 36 using a 10-h photoperiod. Fuke (93) noted that the plants flowered about 28 d after treatment. The number of days from photoinductive treatment to flowering depends upon the photoperiod being used. Panicle initiation and flowering were earlier under the 10-h than under the 11- and 12-h photoperiods (527). Using 168 F 2 plants, those treated under the 10-h photoperiod took 30-47 d to flower, or a mean of 35. d (Li, unpublished data. For practical purposes, an estimate of 35 d should be workable. Thus, to obtain the BVP or the time of panicle initiation, 35 d can be subtracted from the minimum growth duration of the cultivar. In studying the effect of photoperiod on the flowering of the rice plant, the most fundamental consideration is panicle initiation because it marks the actual change from the vege tative to the reproductive phase. Instead of using this as a basis, however, most studies use the flowering date, which is only a projection of the variations of the date of panicle initiation. To a certain extent, several factors can affect the stage from panicle initiation to emergence. In some instances, panicle initiation can occur without the subsequent emergence. The panicle primordium is aborted and a vegetative shoot may dominate the growing tip (527). A methodological question might therefore arise regarding accuracy of the experiments based on flowering date. The practicality of the method, however, far outweighs the need for extreme accuracy. Biochemical changes during photoinduction Very little work has been done on the chemical changes occurring during photoinduction and panicle development in rice. An increase in the rate of respiration of rice shoot apices with each photoinductive cycle given to the eighth The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 13 day, followed by a gradual decline in rate, has been reported (293). The peak of the respiration rate almost coincides with the minimum photoinductive cycles needed by the rice plant at 8 h of photoperiod. The results suggest that the photoperiodic mechanism in the flowering of rice involves a respiratory shift. This corroborates the findings of Elliot and Leopold (86) who used other plant species. The changes in carbohydrate and nitrogen content of rice plants subjected to short days were also studied by Misra and Mishra (299). Unfortunately, the difference in heading between treated and control plants was only 4 d. Khan and Misra (222) reported an increase in sugar and nitrogen content of the leaves when subjected to photoinductive cycles. Photoinduction increases the gibberellic acid activity, although the value is low (461). This immediate rice, visible after three photoinductive cycles, returns to a level lower than that of the original. The rice plant is difficult to use for studies on biochemical changes during reproduction. Perhaps it is best to leave this type of study to other short-day plants. Effect of temperature on the flowering response to photoperiod The flowering of the rice plant is mainly controlled by two ecological factors . day length and temperature . which are often interrelated. The plant may respond to temperature and photoperiod simultaneously, but the degree would vary according to the cultivar. Cultivars have been classified based on these two factors (248, 356, 530). Temperature affects both the photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiodinsensitive cultivars. Generally, high temperature accelerates and low temperature delays heading (5, 6, 90, 126, 186, 307, 339, 340, 370, 376, 409, 410, 439, 456, 531). Some reports, however, have shown that high temperature delays flowering (15, 18, 394). The acceleration of the photoperiod response by high temperature is an overall effect, but it does not indicate the specific effects on the different stages leading to flowering. The effect of temperature on the BVP, photoinductive period, panicle differentiation and development, and critical photoperiod has not been fully studied. Uekuri (506, 507) studied the effect of low temperature during the BVP and found a definite delay in attaining the PSP. The degree of extension of the BVP by low temperature varied with the cultivars used. The growing point of the shoot is the receptive organ for the low-temperature effect, not the leaf blades (506). Ahn (5) reported that high temperature reduced the BVP but had very little effect on the PSP. As early as 1931, Fuke had considered the effect of temperature during the photoinductive period. He used snow to lower the darkroom temperature, but the 5-10? †¹C decrease had little effect on heading. Temperatures above 20? †¹C to 29? †¹C accelerate panicle initiation (24, 341). Vergara and Lilis (524) showed that the vegetative primordium was converted to reproductive primordium at the same time or at the same morphological stage regardless of temperature (21-32? †¹C). 14 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Haniu et a1 (1 15) found similar results. These results contradict those reported by Noguchi and Kamata (341) and Best (24). Temperatures below 15? †¹C inhibited initiation and bud development (156). Floral induction, however, is possible at 15? †¹C (341) but not at 12 or 40oC (115). Because many test plants died in the growing process, 15? †¹ C is assumed to be near the lowest limit for rice growth (341). The optimum temperature reported for photoinduction is 30o C (1 15). The question still remains as to whether a critical temperature for photoinduction exists. The optimum temperature for photoinduction may vary depending upon the photoperiod being used. The optimum temperature tended to be higher under a longer photoperiod and vice versa (24, 364). Putting it another way, at a certain temperature each cultivar has its own optimum day length under which it flowers at the earliest date (459, 572). Detailed microscopic studies of the development of the panicle primordium have shown that high temperature accelerates panicle development (260). The critical temperature for young panicle differentiation has been reported to be 18oC (555). Best (24) has also shown that panicle development, especially in its later stages, is accelerated at high temperatures (35-37oC). On the other hand, low temperature markedly retards panicle primordium development, and, below 25oC, the panicle may not emerge completely from the flag leaf sheath (24). A night temperature of 24. 4oC was found more favorable than 29 and 35? C in accelerating the flowering of the Elon-elon cultivar (263). High night temperature accelerates flowering (220). This was attributed to increased production of florigen during the dark period. This may not be the case and dissecting plants after photoinductive treatments may reveal if it was an acceleration in panicle development and exsertion rather than in panicle initiation. Others have found that the acceleration in flowering with high temperature is the result of acceleration in panicle exsertion, which, in turn, is the result of shorter leafing interval (524). Obviously, caution should be taken in determining the time of panicle initiation by observing the heading date because the exact date of panicle initiation cannot be determined by this method. Measurements and methods of testing photoperiod sensitivity Most studies on the photoperiodism of the rice plant have been considered from two standpoints, namely, classification of the cultivar into photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiod-insensitive types and measurement of the degree of sensitivity. The classification may be relatively easy, but the measurement is rather complex (195). As a result, several methods of measuring photoperiod sensitivity have been developed. Studies on the measurement of photoperiod sensitivity are usually based on the reduction in the number of days as a result of short-day treatment (1 16, 195, 205, 327, 329, 357, 553, 574). Other methods were more specific; they measured the optimum photoperiod (40), critical photoperiod (351), or the gradient of the response curve (34, 192, 247) as the basis of sensitivity. Hara (116) was the first to measure photoperiod sensitivity using the formula: X The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 15 = T . Y/Y X 100, where Y is the number of days required to head under standard conditions and T is the number of days required under an 8-h photoperiod. Several similar formulas have been used by other workers. The percentage or index obtained from such formulas, however, does not clearly define photoperiod sensitivity. The results usually apply only to the area where the rice was tested since the natural day length is usually used as the control. Chandraratna (37, 40) used second-degree polynomials to compute the minimum heading duration and optimum photoperiod; this method involved using at least three photoperiods. He showed that cultivars differ in both characters. Oka (352) and Katayama (192, 201) measured the critical photoperiod and the degree of sensitivity of several cultivars using different methods and formulas and came up with their preferred method of measurement. Both workers used the natural day length as a basis for computation and assumed that flowering occurs 30 d after photoinduction. Best (25) and Li (249), using a method similar to Chandraratna's (34, 37, 40), measured sensitivity based on response curves obtained by plotting the time from sowing to floral initiation on the ordinate and the photoperiod used on the abscissa. The method, however, requires a wide range of photoperiods. Li (249) also studied photoperiod sensitivity in terms of the BVP and the PSP. The BVP was obtained in plants grown under 10 h of light, and the PSP (which is a measure of sensitivity) by subtracting the growth duration under the 10-h photoperiod from that under the 16-h photoperiod. The PSP values obtained show the possible maximum range in growth duration as a result of extending the photoperiod. The photoperiodic characteristics of a rice plant have been described by Stewart (458) who used a different criterion based on 1) basic vegetative period in terms of degree-days (based on temperature accumulation), 2) photoinduction period in degree-days or degree-minutes (using accumulated night length), and 3) panicle development period in degree-days (based on temperature accumulation). Tests under field conditions were analyzed by this method and predictions were made on the response of the cultivar sown in different months. In Japan, the flowering response is evaluated using the floral stages (135, 463). The Japanese workers have used the scale of 0-7, based mainly on the length of the developing panicle. This destructive measurement is more accurate than the usual days from sowing to flowering or treatment to flowering. The choice of the most appropriate method of testing and describing the response to photoperiod depends upon the purpose of the experiment and the available facilities. From the physiological standpoint, however, controlled photoperiod and temperature are desired because of their advantages over natural photoperiods and temperatures. Date-of-planting experiments Day length changes rhythmically within a year and varies depending upon the latitude. The amount of change in day length during the rice cropping season differs from one latitude to another (Fig. 5). Even in locations at the same latitude the day length during the cropping season may differ because the planting dates 16 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 5. Day length changes during the cropping season at various locations in Asia. may differ greatly depending mostly on the rainfall pattern at each location. At northern latitudes (Sapporo, 43? †¹ N, and Konosu, 36? †¹ N) day ength increases and then decreases during the cropping season (Fig. 5). At lower latitudes (Taipei, 25? †¹N, and Los Banos, 14? †¹N) day length decreases during the main growing season. Near the equator (Bukit Merah, 5? †¹N) there is little change. These differences in day length during the growing season may account for the wide range of photoperiod response of rice cultivars. A rice cultivar that must have less than 12 h o daylight to flower will obviously flower too late at the northern latitudes because frost will set in before harvest. In the northern hemisphere, the longest days are in June and the shortest are in December. Taking these into account, the photoperiod response of the rice cultivars can be tested to a limited extent by planting the cultivars at a certain location at different dates. Maximum differences in growth duration can be obtained in the May and November plantings if temperatures are not too low for growth. If a rice? fs growth duration changes more than 30 d, agronomists usually consider it photoperiod sensitive or a seasonal cultivar. As Best (24) has pointed out, this criterion is not specific enough for research on photoperiodism, and caution should be taken in evaluating the data obtained. These phenological data, however, are important to breeders in selecting ecotypes. This method of testing sensitivity to photoperiod has been followed in Australia (245), Brazil (l03, 579), China (44, 356, 582), India (98, 99, 101, 214, 220, 295, 298, 423), Indonesia (467), Japan (533, 548), Korea (247, 466), Malaysia (74, 77, 244), Philippines (91, 512), Russia (452), Senegal (66), Sierra Leone (68, 536), Sri Lanka (112, 259, 402), Thailand (381), Trinidad (325), and United States of America (177, 180). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 17 These experiments strongly confirm the existence of wide cultivar differences in the effect of planting date on flowering date. Many of the results obtained from this type of testing, however, are not applicable to identical cultivars grown at different latitudes. A cultivar can be insensitive to day length in Malaysia but sensitive in Taiwan. Results of field tests at a certain latitude are, therefore, not always applicable at another latitude. Some published papers on the use of this testing method failed to mention latitude or the place where the tests were conducted. Under natural conditions very small differences in day length can affect the rice plant. In Malacca (Malaysia), the difference between the maximum and the minimum day lengths is only 14 min and yet the cultivar Siam 29 takes 329 d to flower when planted in January and only 161 d when planted in September (76). Another instance showing the sensitivity of the rice plant to small differences in day length was reported in a date-of-planting experiment in Malaysia (244). There was a difference of as much as 156 d in the growth duration of photoperiodsensitive cultivars when planted in the same month but in different years (Table 2). This presumably resulted from differences in weather during the critical periods. Cloudy weather early or late in the day shortens the twilight hour, thus shortening the day length. Toriyama et al (490) tested rice cultivars involving not only monthly planting but also sowing at different latitudes (Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and Japan). This gives a better idea of the photoperiodic response of the cultivars but involves much work and cooperation. Ecology and photoperiodism Rice can be grown over a wide range of environmental conditions, from the equator to about 53? N latitude, leading to the differentiation and establishment of various ecotypes and forms. The great diversity in photoperiod sensitivity from one latitude to another or within a latitude probably indicates that the rice cultivars predominantly cultivated in each area are those that have been selected on the basis of local adaptability (that is, adaptability to the temperature of the rice-growing season, day length, and duratio n of the growing season) to assure the full development of the plant and the best possible balance between vegetative and reproductive growth (423, 530, 532, 584, 585). Table 2. Growth duration (days from sowing to flowering) of photo. period-sensitive cultivars when planted in January 1962 and 1963 at several localities in Malaysia (244). Cultivar Locality Jan 1962 Jan 1963 Difference Engkatek Telok Chengai 136 292 156 Kota Bahru 146 243 97 Kuala Lumpur 134 97 37 Subang Bukit Merah 270 224 46 lntan 117 Kuala Lumpur 171 138 33 Kota Bahru 276 176 100 18 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod A major problem in studying the ecology of the rice plant, especially in reference to photoperiodism, is that cultivars in farmers' fields keep changing. For example, Hara reported in 1930 that Japanese cultivars were more sensitive than the cultivars from mainland China and Taiwan. He concluded that the lower the latitude of the region of the native habitat, the less sensitive were the cultivars there. Wada (531), using 134 cultivars, showed contrasting results . the cultivars from the northern region of Japan had lower photoperiod sensitivity than those from the southern region. Recent papers, however, generally agree that among the photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, the lower the latitude ofdistribution, the higher the sensitivity (351, 352, 356, 531, 583). The cultivars in the tropics or lower latitudes are usually late maturing (long growth duration). Many studies show that the late cultivars are more sensitive to photoperiod than the early ones (116, 248, 357, 511, 563, 583). In the tropics, where rice can be grown any time of the year provided there is sufficient water, photoperiod sensitivity presents certain problems. During the off-season, when the day length during the early growth stage is increasing, the sensitive cultivars are uneconomical to use because they take a very long time to produce any grain. For wider adaptability, cultivars should have low photoperiod sensitivity (53, 70) and thus have little differences in growth duration when planted at different times of the year or at varying latitudes. Insensitive cultivars have been successfully grown at different latitudes where rice is used as a crop (45, 351, 352, 511, 532, 568. This indicates that it should not 6. Growth duration of IR8 planted in June or July at 12 sites in Asia. La Trinidad and Kanke are high-altitude areas (52). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 19 e difficult to introduce new photoperiod-insensitive cultivars to different ricegrowing areas or to culture them year-round in the tropics. The plant breeders, as the varieties coming out indicate, are developing more photoperiod-insensitive cultivars. Extensive testing in various rice-growing areas of the world has established the wide adaptability of photoperiod-insensitive cultivars. In general, the longer the BVP the less variation ingro wth duration and the stronger the PSP the greater the variation in growth duration (581). The wide adaptability and the stable growth duration of IR8, a photoperiod-insensitive cultivar, are indicated by the data furnished by cooperators in various parts of the world. IR8? fs growth duration varied within a range of 20 d at latitudes from 11o to 27oN except at high altitudes where low temperatures prevailed during part of the growing season (Fig. 6). A more illuminating example of the effect of temperature comes from monthly planting at Los Banos, Philippines, and at Joydebpur, Bangladesh (Fig. 7). A comparison between the monthly mean temperatures and mean photoperiods shows that the more variable heading pattern at Joydebpur is more closely associated with temperature rather than with the prevailing photoperiod. The effect of low temperature on the improved tropical cultivars becomes more obvious in photoperiod-insensitive cultivars. 7. Mean monthly temperatures and day length in relation to the growth duration of IR8 at Los Banos, Philippines, and Joydebpur, Bangladesh (52) 20 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Sensitivity to photoperiod of rice cultivars in the deep water areas is an important characteristic for survival (104, 520). The floating rice cultivars are highly photoperiod sensitive. They are planted early in the season when the soil can still be worked and without danger of submerging the young seedlings. Flowering occurs when the floodwater peaks or starts receding. If the cultivar flowers when the floodwater is still rising, it would mean the complete loss of the crop if the panicles are submerged. Elongation ability ceases after panicle emergence. Harvesting is usually done when the floodwaters have receded. The maturity of floating rice cultivars coincides with the receding of the annual floodwaters which may be 150-270 d after sowing. Such a long growth duration requires a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar. So far, there is no known tropical cultivar that has a long growth duration and is not sensitive to photoperiod. Photoperiod sensitivity may work as a safety mechanism when precise planting dates are not followed and environmental conditions such as water level cannot be effectively controlled. If the date of sowing or transplanting is delayed because of insufficient rainfall, a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar may still mature at its usual time (352, 382). Plants are not seriously damaged if left in the seedbed for prolonged periods because the growth duration of the main crop is sufficiently long for the plants to adjust. Thus, land preparation and transplanting can be staggered (382). Maturation of the crop at the same time. as with photoperiod-sensitive cultivars planted at different dates, may reduce rat and insect damage in any one field. Also, harvesting and drying are simplified. If the soil is not sufficiently fertile, a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar will continue its compelled vegetative growth until the short days come. This would give the plant enough time to reach a reasonable plant weight and accumulate enough carbohydrates before flowering (528). Thus, a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar generally may be more resistant to unfavorable conditions. Long-growthduration cultivars (essentially photoperiod sensitive) are least affected by strong soil reduction (549). Most upland rice cultivars have short growth duration and are photoperiodinsensitive (11, 12). However, in areas where the rainfall pattern is bimodal, as in northern Thailand, the cultivars are of medium growth duration and are photoperiod-sensitive . possibly another indication of the greater specific adaptability of long-growth-duration cultivars to adverse conditions. The sensitivity to photoperiod of wild species has also been studied in relation to their ecological distribution. Most of the wild rice materials tested were sensitive (191, 201, 205, 209, 353). They suggested that this sensitivity favors the wild rice plants and is perhaps essential to their survival. Terminology used in describing photoperiod ensitivity There is confusion in the terms used to describe the response of the rice plant to day length (515). Often, the terms used for growth duration are also used for response to photoperiod (see Table 3). As early as 1912, Kikkawa pointed out that The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 21 Table 3. Some terms used in describing the growth duratio n and day length response of rice cultivars. Terms References Response to day lengths: date fixed vs period fixed season fixed vs period fixed season bound vs period bound timely fixed vs periodically fixed short-day plant vs long-day plant ensitive vs indifferent sensitive vs insensitive sensitive vs less sensitive short-day plant vs indifferent plant strongly photoperiodic vs weakly photoperiodic sensitive vs photosensitive vs photononsensitive day length sensitive vs day photoperiodic photoperiodic insensitive length nonsensitive early, medium, and late long-aged vs short-aged early flowering vs late flowering late maturing vs early maturing Season of planting: aman vs non-aman yala vs maha winter vs summer main-season vs off-season first crop vs second crop wet vs dry season aus, aman, boro, rabi, kharif Growth duration: 33 7 214, 511 308 1, 99, 336 3 68, 352, 353 21, 98, 449, 538 563 51 1 195, 352 339 574 91, 276, 277, 281 259 158 3, 230, 374 427 112 444 Malaysia, Indonesia, an d Thailand China Philippines Bangladesh, India it is meaningless to classify the rice cultivars of the world into such groups as early, medium, late, aus, or aman. He said, however, that this classification is useful in districts where the climates are similar. The use of the terms photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiod-nonsensitive in reporting the flowering response of a rice cultivar to changes in day length has been suggested (515). Weakly photoperiod-sensitive is sometimes used in place of photoperiod-nonsensitive because the existence of a completely photoperiod-nonsensitive cultivar is difficult to prove. Weakly photoperiod-sensitive is also used to describe cultivars whose flowering is delayed by as many as 70 d by long photoperiods. However, those types can be planted any month of the year in the tropics and can be expected to flower within the crop season. The terms short-day plant and long-day plant are not satisfactory because most rice cultivars today are short-day plants. Sensitive and insensitive, sensitive and indifferent, and sensitive and less sensitive are ambiguous terms. Because the response being described is a response to light period and not only to light, the terms photosensitive and photononsensitive are inappropriate. 22 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 8. Effect of four photoperiod treatments on the seeding-to-heading period of seven rice cultivars. Chang and Vergara (51, 52, 53) classified rice cultivars into four types using the length of the BVP and PSP as criteria (Fig. 8). Their classification was based on duration of plants grown in the greenhouse. Under this classification, the Japanese varieties, such as Fujisaka 5 and Norin 20 (Appendix), do not fall under any category because they have a short BVP and short PSP. Also, at least four photoperiods (10, 12, 14, and 16 h) are needed to classify the cultivars. A more practical grouping could be as follows (using also the length of the BVP and PSP). 1. Photoperiod nonsensitive . very short PSP (less than 30 d) and BVP varying from short to long. 2. Weakly photoperiod-sensitive . arked increase in growth duration when photoperiod is longer than 12 h; PSP may exceed 30 d, but flowering occurs under any long photoperiod. 3. Strongly photoperiod sensitive – sharp increase in growth duration with increase in photoperiod; no flowering beyond critical photoperiod; BVP usually short (not more than 40 d). Cultivars tested under only two photoperiods, such as 10 and 14 h, can also be classified according to these groupings (1 1). Agronomists and farmers would tend to use these groupings. The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 23 Inheritance of vegetative growth duration The inheritance of the duration from seeding to heading in cultivated rices has been studied by many research workers, but the findings have resulted in diverse interpretations. Three categories of genetic postulates were generally offered: 1) monogenic or digenic control of heading date, with earliness dominant to lateness; 2) monogenic or digenic control of flowering date, with lateness being a dominant trait; and 3) multiple-factor inheritance in which the F 2 population showed a continuous and often unimodal distribution and in which the same population might produce a bimodal distribution when grown in a different season (44, 509). In experiments where photoperiod sensitivity was recognized, delayed flowering under a long photoperiod was generally inherited as a monogenic or digenic dominant trait (38, 242, 406, 424, 567). In several crosses involving distantly related parents, sensitivity to photoperiod appeared to be a recessive trait (242, 406). The continuous and transgressive segregation in several F 2 populations involving photoperiod-insensitive parents was ascribed to multiple genes, which indicated dominance of earliness (41, 95, 96, 97, 333, 389, 469, 554). However, in crosses among varieties in Yunnan Province in China, photoperiod sensitivity appeared to be a recessive trait in some F 1 hybrids (252). Some of the divergent interpretations just mentioned resulted partly from failure to recognize the composite nature of the vegetative growth period from seeding to panicle primordium initiation, partly from failure to control the interaction of the environmental factors (mainly photoperiod and air temperatures) and the different genes controlling the vegetative growth period, or from failure to relate the phenotypic expression with the revailing environment. Recent studies at IRRI (48, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 249) have demonstrated physiologically and genetically the feasibility of partitioning the vegetative growt